Physics


Physics is the most basic and most general of the physical and natural sciences. It deals with the fundamental laws and regularities of nature, including laws of motion, energy, heat, electricity, magnetism, light, and the ultimate structure and composition of matter. It is not necessarily the easiest, most important, or even the most useful area of knowledge. Although it is often and fruitfully assumed that all things that can be observed can be reduced ultimately to physical laws as they are now understood, this remains an assumption. The "dark matter" of astronomy and the neutrinos of particle physics are two forms of matter which are nearly inaccessible to physical study because their interactions with ordinary matter are so weak at the scales physicists can easily observe and control. The subject matter of physics is simple compared to many other areas. Atoms are far simpler than human beings, let alone the fullness of their lives or human societies. The difficulty is that physical laws and regularities are usually expressed using the language of mathematics. The application of physics to natural phenomena may be so complex and involve so many unknowns that other methods of study become more practical. This is especially the case in dealing with human activities.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience Science Mechanics Thermodynamics Electromagnetism Relativity Quantum physics Structure of Matter
Nevertheless, these fundamental laws can be applied to understanding of all other natural sciences, including particular substances and the changes they undergo, the visible heavens, the earth, and living things. This knowledge is applied in the invention and use of machines and technology, so that physics is essential in all branches of engineering. For these reasons, it is presented here as the first and most fundamental of the various branches of knowledge. Physics is here divided into areas of mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, relativity theory, quantum physics, and the structure of matter, which are described below. Classical physics includes mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, and the structure of matter at bulk scales. Modern physics includes Relativity theory, quantum physics, and the structure of matter at subatomic, atomic, and molecular scales, and exotic forms of matter.

Physics is the most basic and most general of the physical and natural sciences. It deals with the fundamental laws and regularities of nature, including laws of motion, energy, heat, electricity, magnetism, light, and the ultimate structure and composition of matter.

It is not necessarily the easiest, most important, or even the most useful area of knowledge. Although it is often and fruitfully assumed that all things that can be observed can be reduced ultimately to physical laws as they are now understood, this remains an assumption. The "dark matter" of astronomy and the neutrinos of particle physics are two forms of matter which are nearly inaccessible to physical study because their interactions with ordinary matter are so weak at the scales physicists can easily observe and control.

The subject matter of physics is simple compared to many other areas. Atoms are far simpler than human beings, let alone the fullness of their lives or human societies. The difficulty is that physical laws and regularities are usually expressed using the language of mathematics. The application of physics to natural phenomena may be so complex and involve so many unknowns that other methods of study become more practical. This is especially the case in dealing with human activities.

Science

Nevertheless, these fundamental laws can be applied to understanding of all other natural sciences, including particular substances and the changes they undergo, the visible heavens, the earth, and living things. This knowledge is applied in the invention and use of machines and technology, so that physics is essential in all branches of engineering. For these reasons, it is presented here as the first and most fundamental of the various branches of knowledge.

Physics is here divided into areas of mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, relativity theory, quantum physics, and the structure of matter, which are described below. Classical physics includes mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, and the structure of matter at bulk scales. Modern physics includes Relativity theory, quantum physics, and the structure of matter at subatomic, atomic, and molecular scales, and exotic forms of matter.

Mechanics

Mechanics is considered the most basic and fundamental area of physics, and is one of the oldest. It can be subdivided in many ways. Particle mechanics includes the basic description of motion, the concept of mass and the causes of motion, elementary concepts of energy, and collections of particles. Rigid body mechanics extends and applied these concepts to bodies that have size and shape. General mechanics extends these further to deformable bodies and fluids, and introduces the concepts of waves. Newton's law of gravitation has applications to the study of weight as distinguished from mass, and celestial mechanics, the motions of astronomical bodies.

Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and temperature and related quantities and laws. Its basic connections to mechanics and to the structure of matter are examined in statistical mechanics. Ordinary observations at the human scale are examined in classical thermodynamics. Nonclassical thermodynamics extends the laws of thermodynamics to more general cases.

Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism is the study of electricity, magnetism and light. Electricity is divided into two parts: electrostatics, which deals with electrical charge at rest and related laws and quantities, and electric current, which deals with electrical charge in motion. Electricity is tied closely to magnetism, although the connection is not obvious to the ordinary observer. The combined laws of electricity and magnetism underlie the study of light and invisible waves in the field of optics, although this connection also is not obvious to the ordinary observer. The study of optics is also connected to quantum physics.

Relativity

This theory was created by Einstein and has been extended by others. Relativity is divided into two major areas: Special relativity and general relativity. The special theory of relativity unifies the treatment of electromagnetism and optics with mechanics except for gravitation. The general theory of relativity includes the study of gravitation. The predictions of relativity often seem contrary to intuition and produce various philosophical difficulties, but intuition is shaped by experience at human scales. At these scales, the differences between classical physics and the predictions of relativity are minute or undetectable, and classical methods are usually easier. However, at the scales involving particle physics, or high-precision timekeeping and orbiting satellites, both the special and general theories have been repeatedly verified.

Quantum Physics

Atlhough most of quantum physics is inaccessible without fairly advanced mathematical training, a few elementary principles including Plank's constant, the particle behavior of radiation, the wave behavior of matter, and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle are mentioned. Quantum physics are primarily visible at the atomic and subatomic scale. Since humans do not directly observe the behavior of matter and radiation at this scale, ordinary experience and intuition fail, and the details of the behavior have to be described using fairly advanced mathematics. Although quantum physics can be extended to include the special theory of relativity, the effects of gravitation are so weak at the atomic and subatomic scale that unified theories which combine quantum physics and general relativity are all more or less speculative and unverified by experiment.

Structure of Matter

The structure of matter is divided into five principal areas. Subatomic physics deals with the ultimate and finest structure of matter and requires quantum physics to describe except in the vaguest sense. Atomic physics deals with the description and behavior of atoms. It requires quantum physics to describe this behavior fully and accurately, although some aspects of it can be explained using more familiar concepts. In molecular physics, the structure and behavior of molecules is most accurately described using quantum physics, but can be understood to a considerable extent using concepts of classical physics. Atomic and molecular physics are claimed by both physics and chemistry. The distinction observed here is that general laws are considered to belong to physics, while particular kinds of atoms and molecules are assigned to chemistry. Bulk matter in the form of solids, liquids, and gases is the easiest area to work with. A fifth division, exotic matter, deals with forms of matter such as degenerate gases, neutronium, and the dark matter mentioned earlier.


Other Sciences In general, physics is considered more fundamental than other sciences, and most of the connections to them involve applications of physics. Chemistry Physics often deals with particular substances, including particular elements. There is some use of the periodic table, but particular groups seem to be a bit more useful. It also uses compounds such as inorganic compounds, organic compounds, and acids, bases, and salts, and may use the compound directory. It also deals with mixtures including solutions and heterogenous mixtures.	Links to related sites Yahoo - Biophysics
Chemical changes are also important. Nuclear reactions of radioactive decay, fusion, and fission are often considered part of physics. Chemical reactions involving stoichiometry, mechanical rearrangement, electronic rearrangment, chemical kinetics, chemical thermodynamics, and specific reations are sometimes important in physics. Physical changes such as melting and freezing, boiling and condensation, sublimation, mixing, and separation are often the causes of physical effects. Chemical systems, including solid chemistry, liquid chemistry, gas chemistry, inorganic systems, and organic systems are also sometimes important to physics. Astronomy Astronomy depends so heavily on physics that these subjects are often studied together, and astronomy has often provided tests for physical theories. Solar System astronomy including the sun, planetary systems, minor bodies, interplanetary medium, and solar system history has been important since ancient times. Stellar astronomy including the interstellar medium, stars, star systems, and astrocartography have also been important. Some of the exotic forms of matter, such as degenerate gases and neutronium, are only known from observations at this scale. Galactic astronomy is used in a similar fashion, Some of the forms of exotic matter, for instance dark matter, are only known from observations at this scale. Cosmology is particularly used as a check on theorization about general relativity and subatomic physics. Earth science also includes more applications of it. Principles of geology including mineralogy, petrology, landforms, geological processes, and interior geology, hydrospheric science including oceanography, glaciology, freshwater, and groundwater, and atmospheric science including atmospheric structure, meteorology, and climatology sometimes affect physical experiments. Physical geography and geohistory are not as well connected. Biology includes more applications of physics than fundamental principles. Molecular biology including inorganics, small organics, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids pose some interesting problems. Cell biology including cell anatomy, behavior, and types also suggest some areas. Organism biology with habitat, tissues, organ systems, form, life cycle, and behavior, systematics including microbes, protists, plants, fungi, and animals, ecology, behavioral ecology, population ecology, community ecology, Systems, evolution, ecosystems, and biogeography, and biohistory may also suggest areas of physics.
Personal studies Various studies of the human body have some importance for physical methods. Human physiology, disease, life cycle, and form and appearance are somewhat weakly connected. Human body systems including structural, vital, reproductive, and control systems can be connectdd somwhat.	Links to related sites Yahoo - Physicists
Psychology including behavioral elements, mind, behavioral patterns, developmental psychology, disorders, personality, and social psychology has an effect on physical observation and research. Individual biographies will also be significant. Prominent contributors to physics have included: Aristotle Archimedes Galileo Newton Dalton Faraday Maxwell Einstein
Anthropology Social foundations of physics and physicists will be significant, and includes principles of social presentation, interaction, social control, social group types and behavior.	Links to related sites
Demography seems to be less directly useful, but analogies of birth or entry, migration, and death or exit from physics, population structure, and population change may be useful. Physical anthropology and human ecology have limited use. Human geograpy, including Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, and Oceania can be connected somewhat. Particular groups may be useful.
Culture Not all material culture is useful in physics. Industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machines, utilities, and other tehcnology and physical instrumentation is highly valuable. Buildings including building materials, components, furnishings, finished buildings, and outdoor structures may be useful. Food and agricultural technology and clothing and dress are minimally useful. Transportation and communication technology are useful. Other artifacts are less directly useful. Conceptual culture is vital to physics. Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world is important in physics. Graphic arts including drawing, painting, printmaking, photography, and computer graphics is useful, though not parts of it equally so. Literature is also significant. Oral tradition is not extremely important, but literary forms, types, and particular works are often important. All major branches of mathematics are used quite heavily. Mathematical foundations are not directly used much, but mathematical descriptions of physical objects can be treated as mathematical objects. Various sets and collections are used, mathematical structure is applied, and attempts to put physics on a strict foundation of mathematical logic have been made. Arithmetic is used heavily. Numeric, concrete, approximate, and variant arithmetic are all useful. Algebra, including real and complex algebra, linear algebra, and abstract algebra is also applied. Analysis including mathematical functions, infinite series, differential calculus, integral calculus, differential equations, and advanced analysis is also important in physics. Geometry including geometric foundations, plane euclidean geometry, solid euclidean geometry, and noneuclidean geometry, is also important. and statistics are essential. Applied science, including measurement is also essential. Philosophy, including discussions of the nature and limits of physical knowledge, is also useful.	Links to related sites Yahoo - Physics Open Directory - Physics Eric Weinstein's treasure trove of physics Physics Central PhysLINK Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme. Used to classify published research and more familiar than the organization used on this site. Wikipedia - Physics Physics.org PhysicsWeb WWW Virtual Library - Physics
Behavioral culture including occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events is also connected to physics. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling, dress and adornment, social interation, and institutional customs may be useful.
Institutions Physics does not appear to be closely connected to families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families.	Links to related sites Yahoo - Physics - Ask an Expert
Education, including the teaching of physics, cultural institutions, physics research, school systems, and particular schools are all closely associated with physics. Economics including economic activity, industries, and economic systems will also be useful. Government including law, government activity, government organization, and particular governments are connected. Religion including religious belief, practice, organization, and particular religions also have some associations.
Sociology Information from social structure and change including social structure, social types, and social change will be useful when this is better developed. Communities such as Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City can be examined along with peoples they belong to. Various peoples of the world have made contributions to physics. Various nations [such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, Russia, Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, and the Philippines] can be connected. Primarily, Western Civilization including Brazil has made most of these contributions, and Anglic peoples such as those of the United States and Latin peoples have both been prominent.Asiatic peoples including those of Indonesia have contributed to physics. South Asian peoples such as those of India have contributed slightly. Oriental peoples including those of China have contributed. Contributions from African and American Indian people (Some of which are found in the the United States and Brazil) have been minimal.
History The prehistory of physics is untraceable. Little development is known during antiquity incuding the 5th millennium BC, 4th millennium BC, 3rd Millennium BC, 2nd Millennium BC, or early first millennium BC. There was some development in classical and medieval times. In early classical times, Aristotle and Archimedes were among the first to write on what is now mechanics. In late classical times, and early medieval times, little progress was made in physics. The same is true of late medieval times. Its development is primarily modern. In the 16th century, the first significant advance in mechanics since antiquity, treatment of non-parallel forces in connection with levers was made. Early explorations of magnetism began. c. 1586 - c. 1637 Galileo made important discoveries in physics and astronomy. In the 17th century, Galileo began to apply mathematical and experimental methods to the study of motion, and demonstrated that Aristotle's ideas were incorrect. Later, Newton developed mathematical methods known as the calculus and used these in exploring his three laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. These were and still are enormously successful in describing natural phenomena. He also made important discoveries regarding the behavior of light. 1637 - 1649 Descartes published works on philosophy, mathematics, and speculative physics. c. 1665 - c. 1704 Newton developed and published his theories of physics and astronomy. In the 18th century, these methods were refined and developed. Mathematical methods were applied to extended and non-rigid bodies and fluids and to problems of gravitation. Electric phenomena and magnetism were also studied. Thermometers allowed measurements of heat. 1729 - 1757. Franklin establishes reputation as printer, civic leader, inventor, and scientist, especially noted for his work with electricity and weather. In the 19th century, physics became professionalized as increasingly expensive experimental apparatus, mathematical training, and institutional support became necessary to make new discoveries. In the early 19th century, Dalton (1803-1810) proposed his atomic theory of chemistry, which was slow to win full acceptance among physicists for another century. In the early-mid 19th century, Faraday (1821-1840) began work on electricity, magnetism, and electrochemistry. In the mid-19th century, Faraday continued work on electricity and magnetism, (1841-1859) while early studies in heat and thermodynamics were being done. In the late-mid 19th century, Maxwell (1870-1873) published works on electromagnetic theory which made it mathematically exact and predicted the existence of electromagnetic radiation, thus paving the way for a unification of electricity and magnetism with optics. He and other scientists also worked out mathematical laws of classical thermodynamics. In the late 19th century, the existence of electromagnetic waves was verified. Theoretical physicists had nearly worked out a mechanical theory of the transmission of light which new discoveries quickly showed to be untenable. The discoveries of X-rays, radioactivity, and the appearance of lines in the spectrum of light from various sources posed inexplicable mysteries. Also, the theory of radiation required Planck to introduced the quantum concept. In the 20th century, new areas of physics developed, and physics became increasingly mathematical and difficult for the layman to use and comprehend. In the early 20th century, particularly 1905, Einstein published four papers which revolutionized physics, among other things proposing his special theory of relativity, and demonstrating an application of quantum theory. Rutherford was prominent in the investigation of radioactivity and nuclear structure. In the early-mid 20th century, mechanics developed slowly, and electromagnetism and thermodynamics developed a little. Relativity remained mostly controversial, but quantum theory developed substantially. Only the rudiments of subatomic physics were investigated, but there was substantial insight into the nucleus as Rutherford continued his work, and into the electronic structure of the atom, as Heisenberg developed a matrix formulation for quantum mechanics and proposed his uncertainty principle. In the mid 20th century, mechanics developed somewhat, and electromagnetic theory was increasingly understood. Thermodynamics also developed a little. Relativity theory advanced, and quantum theory advanced considerably. Investigations into subatomic and atomic physics resulted in the development of nuclear weaponry. Fermi was prominent in these developments. Other studies in the structure of bulk matter also occurred. In the late-mid 20th century, there was progress in advanced areas of mechanics, optics, nonclassical thermodynamics, in relativity theory and quantum theory. The structure of matter at the subatomic level was increasingly understood and there was progress in understanding the atomic, molecular, and bulk matter levels. The late 20th century is still too recent to produce a summary of progress, although there have been advances in relativity theory, quantum mechanics, optics, nonclassical thermodynamics, and in subatomic and atomic physics. The early 21st century has the latest events, including developments in the early 2000s and late 2000s, including 2006 and 2007. Developments of 2008 including the first quarter, second quarter, third quarter with July, August, and September and the fourth quarter can be considered. The future of physics including the near future, middle future, and far future has not yet been examined.

Other Sciences

In general, physics is considered more fundamental than other sciences, and most of the connections to them involve applications of physics.

Chemistry

Physics often deals with particular substances, including particular elements. There is some use of the periodic table, but particular groups seem to be a bit more useful. It also uses compounds such as inorganic compounds, organic compounds, and acids, bases, and salts, and may use the compound directory. It also deals with mixtures including solutions and heterogenous mixtures.

Links to related sites

Yahoo - Biophysics

Chemical changes are also important. Nuclear reactions of radioactive decay, fusion, and fission are often considered part of physics. Chemical reactions involving stoichiometry, mechanical rearrangement, electronic rearrangment, chemical kinetics, chemical thermodynamics, and specific reations are sometimes important in physics. Physical changes such as melting and freezing, boiling and condensation, sublimation, mixing, and separation are often the causes of physical effects.

Chemical systems, including solid chemistry, liquid chemistry, gas chemistry, inorganic systems, and organic systems are also sometimes important to physics.

Astronomy

Astronomy depends so heavily on physics that these subjects are often studied together, and astronomy has often provided tests for physical theories. Solar System astronomy including the sun, planetary systems, minor bodies, interplanetary medium, and solar system history has been important since ancient times. Stellar astronomy including the interstellar medium, stars, star systems, and astrocartography have also been important. Some of the exotic forms of matter, such as degenerate gases and neutronium, are only known from observations at this scale. Galactic astronomy is used in a similar fashion, Some of the forms of exotic matter, for instance dark matter, are only known from observations at this scale. Cosmology is particularly used as a check on theorization about general relativity and subatomic physics.

Earth science also includes more applications of it. Principles of geology including mineralogy, petrology, landforms, geological processes, and interior geology, hydrospheric science including oceanography, glaciology, freshwater, and groundwater, and atmospheric science including atmospheric structure, meteorology, and climatology sometimes affect physical experiments. Physical geography and geohistory are not as well connected.

Biology includes more applications of physics than fundamental principles. Molecular biology including inorganics, small organics, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids pose some interesting problems. Cell biology including cell anatomy, behavior, and types also suggest some areas. Organism biology with habitat, tissues, organ systems, form, life cycle, and behavior, systematics including microbes, protists, plants, fungi, and animals, ecology, behavioral ecology, population ecology, community ecology, Systems, evolution, ecosystems, and biogeography, and biohistory may also suggest areas of physics.

Personal studies

Various studies of the human body have some importance for physical methods. Human physiology, disease, life cycle, and form and appearance are somewhat weakly connected. Human body systems including structural, vital, reproductive, and control systems can be connectdd somwhat.

Links to related sites

Yahoo - Physicists

Psychology including behavioral elements, mind, behavioral patterns, developmental psychology, disorders, personality, and social psychology has an effect on physical observation and research.

Individual biographies will also be significant. Prominent contributors to physics have included:

Anthropology

Social foundations of physics and physicists will be significant, and includes principles of social presentation, interaction, social control, social group types and behavior.

Links to related sites

Demography seems to be less directly useful, but analogies of birth or entry, migration, and death or exit from physics, population structure, and population change may be useful. Physical anthropology and human ecology have limited use. Human geograpy, including Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, and Oceania can be connected somewhat. Particular groups may be useful.

Culture

Not all material culture is useful in physics. Industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machines, utilities, and other tehcnology and physical instrumentation is highly valuable. Buildings including building materials, components, furnishings, finished buildings, and outdoor structures may be useful. Food and agricultural technology and clothing and dress are minimally useful. Transportation and communication technology are useful. Other artifacts are less directly useful.

Conceptual culture is vital to physics. Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world is important in physics. Graphic arts including drawing, painting, printmaking, photography, and computer graphics is useful, though not parts of it equally so. Literature is also significant. Oral tradition is not extremely important, but literary forms, types, and particular works are often important. All major branches of mathematics are used quite heavily. Mathematical foundations are not directly used much, but mathematical descriptions of physical objects can be treated as mathematical objects. Various sets and collections are used, mathematical structure is applied, and attempts to put physics on a strict foundation of mathematical logic have been made. Arithmetic is used heavily. Numeric, concrete, approximate, and variant arithmetic are all useful. Algebra, including real and complex algebra, linear algebra, and abstract algebra is also applied. Analysis including mathematical functions, infinite series, differential calculus, integral calculus, differential equations, and advanced analysis is also important in physics. Geometry including geometric foundations, plane euclidean geometry, solid euclidean geometry, and noneuclidean geometry, is also important. and statistics are essential. Applied science, including measurement is also essential. Philosophy, including discussions of the nature and limits of physical knowledge, is also useful.

Links to related sites

Yahoo - Physics
Open Directory - Physics
Eric Weinstein's treasure trove of physics
Physics Central
PhysLINK
Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme. Used to classify published research and more familiar than the organization used on this site.
Wikipedia - Physics
Physics.org
PhysicsWeb
WWW Virtual Library - Physics

Behavioral culture including occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events is also connected to physics. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling, dress and adornment, social interation, and institutional customs may be useful.

Institutions

Physics does not appear to be closely connected to families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families.

Links to related sites

Yahoo - Physics - Ask an Expert

Education, including the teaching of physics, cultural institutions, physics research, school systems, and particular schools are all closely associated with physics. Economics including economic activity, industries, and economic systems will also be useful. Government including law, government activity, government organization, and particular governments are connected. Religion including religious belief, practice, organization, and particular religions also have some associations.

Sociology

Information from social structure and change including social structure, social types, and social change will be useful when this is better developed. Communities such as Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City can be examined along with peoples they belong to. Various peoples of the world have made contributions to physics. Various nations [such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, Russia, Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, and the Philippines] can be connected. Primarily, Western Civilization including Brazil has made most of these contributions, and Anglic peoples such as those of the United States and Latin peoples have both been prominent.Asiatic peoples including those of Indonesia have contributed to physics. South Asian peoples such as those of India have contributed slightly. Oriental peoples including those of China have contributed. Contributions from African and American Indian people (Some of which are found in the the United States and Brazil) have been minimal.

History

The prehistory of physics is untraceable. Little development is known during antiquity incuding the 5th millennium BC, 4th millennium BC, 3rd Millennium BC, 2nd Millennium BC, or early first millennium BC. There was some development in classical and medieval times. In early classical times, Aristotle and Archimedes were among the first to write on what is now mechanics. In late classical times, and early medieval times, little progress was made in physics. The same is true of late medieval times.

Its development is primarily modern. In the 16th century, the first significant advance in mechanics since antiquity, treatment of non-parallel forces in connection with levers was made. Early explorations of magnetism began.

c. 1586 - c. 1637 Galileo made important discoveries in physics and astronomy.

In the 17th century, Galileo began to apply mathematical and experimental methods to the study of motion, and demonstrated that Aristotle's ideas were incorrect. Later, Newton developed mathematical methods known as the calculus and used these in exploring his three laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. These were and still are enormously successful in describing natural phenomena. He also made important discoveries regarding the behavior of light.

1637 - 1649 Descartes published works on philosophy, mathematics, and speculative physics.
c. 1665 - c. 1704 Newton developed and published his theories of physics and astronomy.

In the 18th century, these methods were refined and developed. Mathematical methods were applied to extended and non-rigid bodies and fluids and to problems of gravitation. Electric phenomena and magnetism were also studied. Thermometers allowed measurements of heat.

1729 - 1757. Franklin establishes reputation as printer, civic leader, inventor, and scientist, especially noted for his work with electricity and weather.

In the 19th century, physics became professionalized as increasingly expensive experimental apparatus, mathematical training, and institutional support became necessary to make new discoveries. In the early 19th century, Dalton (1803-1810) proposed his atomic theory of chemistry, which was slow to win full acceptance among physicists for another century. In the early-mid 19th century, Faraday (1821-1840) began work on electricity, magnetism, and electrochemistry. In the mid-19th century, Faraday continued work on electricity and magnetism, (1841-1859) while early studies in heat and thermodynamics were being done. In the late-mid 19th century, Maxwell (1870-1873) published works on electromagnetic theory which made it mathematically exact and predicted the existence of electromagnetic radiation, thus paving the way for a unification of electricity and magnetism with optics. He and other scientists also worked out mathematical laws of classical thermodynamics. In the late 19th century, the existence of electromagnetic waves was verified. Theoretical physicists had nearly worked out a mechanical theory of the transmission of light which new discoveries quickly showed to be untenable. The discoveries of X-rays, radioactivity, and the appearance of lines in the spectrum of light from various sources posed inexplicable mysteries. Also, the theory of radiation required Planck to introduced the quantum concept.

In the 20th century, new areas of physics developed, and physics became increasingly mathematical and difficult for the layman to use and comprehend. In the early 20th century, particularly 1905, Einstein published four papers which revolutionized physics, among other things proposing his special theory of relativity, and demonstrating an application of quantum theory. Rutherford was prominent in the investigation of radioactivity and nuclear structure. In the early-mid 20th century, mechanics developed slowly, and electromagnetism and thermodynamics developed a little. Relativity remained mostly controversial, but quantum theory developed substantially. Only the rudiments of subatomic physics were investigated, but there was substantial insight into the nucleus as Rutherford continued his work, and into the electronic structure of the atom, as Heisenberg developed a matrix formulation for quantum mechanics and proposed his uncertainty principle. In the mid 20th century, mechanics developed somewhat, and electromagnetic theory was increasingly understood. Thermodynamics also developed a little. Relativity theory advanced, and quantum theory advanced considerably. Investigations into subatomic and atomic physics resulted in the development of nuclear weaponry. Fermi was prominent in these developments. Other studies in the structure of bulk matter also occurred. In the late-mid 20th century, there was progress in advanced areas of mechanics, optics, nonclassical thermodynamics, in relativity theory and quantum theory. The structure of matter at the subatomic level was increasingly understood and there was progress in understanding the atomic, molecular, and bulk matter levels. The late 20th century is still too recent to produce a summary of progress, although there have been advances in relativity theory, quantum mechanics, optics, nonclassical thermodynamics, and in subatomic and atomic physics. The early 21st century has the latest events, including developments in the early 2000s and late 2000s, including 2006 and 2007. Developments of 2008 including the first quarter, second quarter, third quarter with July, August, and September and the fourth quarter can be considered.

The future of physics including the near future, middle future, and far future has not yet been examined.

Top