Earth Science


Earth science includes principal divisions of earth history, physical geography, geology, atmospheric science, hydrospheric science, and geology.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience Science Geohistory Physical geography Atmospheric science Hydrospheric science Geology

Earth science includes principal divisions of earth history, physical geography, geology, atmospheric science, hydrospheric science, and geology.

Science

Geohistory

Earth history can be divided into four major periods: The Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. In this section, geologic history is of greatest interest, although it is closely connected to life on the earth, which is studied in biohistory.

Physical geography

Physical geography deals with the geologic, hydrograpic, and climatic aspects of particular regions of the earth. All divisions of the earth are arbitrary, but certain of them can be identified: These are the oceans and the continents.

Atmospheric science

Atmospheric science includes studies of climatology, meteorology, and atmospheric structure.

Hydrospheric science

Hydrospheric science includes major divisions of oceanography, glaciology, groundwater, and fresh water.

Geology

Geology includes subdivisions of interior geology, geologic processes, landforms, petrology, and mineralogy.


History Prehistory Early prehistory including the Pliocene, early Pleistocene, early mid Pleistocene, late mid Pleistocene, and late Pleistocene can be connected. Middle prehistory including the 5th decamillennium BP, 4th decamillennium BP, 3rd decamillennium BP, and 2nd decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory including the early 8th millennium BC, late 8th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, late 7th millennium BC, early 6th millennium BC, and late 6th millennium BC can be connected. Antiquity The 5th millennium BC including the early 5th millennium BC, early mid 5th millennium BC, mid 5th millennium BC, late mid 5th millennium BC, and late 5th millennium BC can be connected. The 4th millennium BC including the early 4th millennium BC, early mid 4th millennium BC, mid 4th millennium BC, late mid 4th millennium BC, and late 4th millennium BC can be connected. The 3rd millennium BC including the early 3rd millennium BC, early mid 3rd millennium BC, mid 3rd millennium BC, late mid 3rd millennium BC, and late 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The 2nd millennium BC including the early 2nd millennium BC, early mid 2nd millennium BC, mid 2nd millennium BC, late mid 2nd millennium BC, and late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The early 1st millennium BC including the 10th century BC, 9th century BC, 8th century BC, 7th century BC, and 6th century BC can be connected. Classical and medieval history Significant findings were made in early classical times including the 5th century BC, 4th century BC, 3rd century BC, 2nd century BC, and 1st century BC. Late classical times including the 1st century CE, 2nd century CE, 3rd century CE, 4th century CE, and 5th century CE can be connected. Early medieval times including the 6th century, 7th century, 8th century, 9th century, and 10th century can be considered. Late medieval times including the 11th century, 12th century, 13th century, 14th century, 15th century. Modern history I do not yet have many developments of the 16th century including the early 16th century, early mid 16th century, mid 16th century, late mid 16th century, or late 16th century listed. 1492-1504 In four voyages, Columbus brings awareness of the "New World" of the Americas to the "Old World" of Europe and Asia. 1497-1499 da Gama reaches India by sailing around Africa, initiating the European exploration and exploitation of Asia and Africa. 1519 - 1521. Magellan leads first expedition to sail around the world. In the 17th century, Newtonian mechanics began to explain and predict a number of phenomena about the earth. I do not yet have specific details for the early 17th century, early mid 17th century, mid 17th century, or late mid 17th century. The late 17th century including the early 1680s, late 1680s, early 1690s, and late 1690s can be connected. In the 18th century, there was exploration of the various phenomena of earth science, including increased mapping, and increasingly scientific observation of atmospheric phenoma, such as the weather. I do not yet have specific details for the early 18th century, early mid-18th century, mid 18th century, late-mid 18th century, or late 18th century. In the 19th century, geology developed as a science, studies of the oceans and understanding of the water cycle, and the beginnings of understanding of the weather and climate developed. Exploration, discovery, and mapping of the surface of the earth, except for the far arctic and antarctic regions, was essentially complete. Details of the early 19th century, early-mid 19th century, mid-19th century, the late-mid 19th century, and the late 19th century are incomplete. 20th Century Understanding of physics, chemistry, and astronomy, and biology, and techniques of drilling, submarine vehicles, aeronautics, and space technology have all vastly improved understanding of the earth. For instance, in the early 20th century, in 1901 - 1908 Marconi's use of radio for long-distance communication illustrated properties of the upper atmosphere. The early 1900s, late 1900s, early 1910s, and late 1810s can be connected. In the early-mid 20th century, the use of aircraft also began to enhance study of the earth sciences in the early 1920s, late 1920s, early 1930s, and late 1930s. Progress in all areas of earth science has continued in the mid 20th century including the early 1940s, late 1940s, early 1950s, and late 1950s. The late mid 20th century including the early 1960s, late 1960s, early 1970s, and late 1970s can be connected. Late 20th century The early 1980s including 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, and 1985 can be connected. The late 1980s including 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, and 1990 can be connected. The early 1990s including 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995 can be connected. The late 1990s including 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, and 2000 can be connected. Early 21st century The early 2000s including 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 can be connected. The late 2000s down to 2006 and 2007 can be considered. 2008 including the first quarter, second quarter, third quarter with July, August, and September can be considered. 5 Sep 2008 Estimates of sea-level rise due to global warming were scaled back. 15 Sept 2008 - NASA scientists reported that the Ozone hole over the Antarctic had reached its largest expanse, 27 million square kilometers vs 26 million square kilometers in 2006. European Scientists at ESA concurred. The fourth quarter including October and November can be connected. 2009 including the first quarte 2009, second quarter 2009, third quarter 2009, and fourth quarter 2009 can be connected. 2010 including the first quarter 2010, second quarter 2010, third quarter 2010, and fourth quarter 2010 can be connected. The early 2010s can be connected. 2011 can be connected. The first quarter 2011 can be connected. January 2011 including 2011 week 1, 2011 week 2, 2011 week 3, 2011 week 4, 2011 week 5, and 2011 week 6 can be connected. February 2011, and March 2011 can be connected. The second quarter 2011 including April 2011, May 2011, and June 2011 can be connected. Its future can be connected. The near future including next months, next quarter, and next year can be connected. The middle future and far future are unpredictable. Sociology Peoples of the world Peoples give particular examples of the study of earth science. African peoples can be connected. Some information can be gathered from particular nations, starting with Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, and the Philippines. Western civilization including Russia has been most influential. Anglic peoples such as those of the United States have contributed substantially. Latin peoples including those of Brazil seem to have contributed less. Asiatic peoples including Bangladesh have contributed to earth science. South Asian peoples including those of India and Pakistan have contributed. Oriental peoples including China have contributed. Southeast Asian peoples including those of Indonesia can be connected. American Indian peoples such as those found in the United States and Brazil have made few direct contributions to earth science. Communities Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City can be identified. Social structure and change Social change Particular changes and movements including the agrarian revolution can be connected. The agricultural revolution can be connected. The agrarian revolution including bronze age movements, early iron age movements, late iron age movments, and modernization can be connected. The Industrial revolution including the early industrial revolution, middle industrial revolution, and late industrial revolution can be connected. Social change factors including institutional change, cultural change, demographic change, and natural change can be connected. Social change processes including innovation, transmission, adaptation, and extinction can be connected. Social types Industrial societies can be connected. Agrarian societies can be connected. Horticultural societies can be connected. Hunting and gathering societies can be connected. Social structure including institutional structure, cultural structure, and anthropological structure can be connected. Community and regional structure can be connected. Class structure can be connected. Institutions Religion Religious influence can be outlined by examining particular traditions such as Abrahamic, Asiatic, Secular, and pagan traditions. Religious organization including highly structured, fragmented, and loosely structured organization can be considered. Religious practice can be connected. Religious belief can be connected. Government has sponsored a great deal of research in it, and law, government structure, and government activity can be connected. Particular governments including international government, national government, and local government can be connected. Economics including economic activities, industries, and economic systems can be connected. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and schools will be very useful. Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families seem to be moderately useful. Culture Behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events can be applied. Conceptual culture is especially valuable. Language and graphic arts are useful. There are valuable connections with literature and literary works. Mathematics, applied science, and philosophy can be connected. Material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation technology, communication technology, and other acrtifacts will be useful. Anthropology Some particular groups focus on earth science. Human geography including divisions of Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, and Oceania is closely connected to it. Human ecology including environmental impacts on people, other life forms, and human change of the environment is more important. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion seems to be weakly connected. Demography including population change, population size and structure, death, migration, and births seems to be weakly connected. Social foundations including group behavior, social group types, social control interaction, and social presentation among earth scientists are useful. Personal studies The biography list will refer to particular scientists and students. Columbus Newton Psychology including social psychology, personality, developmental psychology, mental disorders, behavior patterns, mind, and behavioral elements is also important. The capabilities and limitations of the human body have some connection to this. Form and appearance, life cycle, disease, and body functions and systems are somewhat indirectly useful.
Other sciences Biology Biohistory including the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras is important. Ecology including behavioral ecology, population ecology, community ecology, systems ecology, evolution, ecosystems, and biogeography will be useful. Systematics incuding microbes, protists, plants, fungi, and animals are also significant. Organism biology including habitat, tisses, organ systems, form, life cycle, and behavior is also useful. Cell biology including anatomy, behavior, and types are useful. Processes of molecular biology including inorganics, small organics, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, may affect the entire earth.	Links to other Sites: Yahoo directory - Earth Sciences
Astronomy Cosmology and galactic astronomy are only very indirectly applicable to earth science. It is somewhat better connected to stellar astronomy including the interstellar medium, stars, star clusters, and astrocartography. It depends most heavily on solar system astronomy. The sun is important, and Solar planetary systems are also essential because earth is one of the inner planets. The gas giants and outer dwarfs planets are not as significant. Smaller bodies and the interplanetary medium are connected, and it is connected to solar system history. Chemistry Chemical systems including organic, inorganic, gaseous and plasma, liquid, and solid systems are all important in various parts of earth study. Changes in the earth's materials are chemical changes. Nuclear reactions of radioactive decay and fission can be identifed. Fusion rarely occurs. Chemical reactions and stoichiometry, mechanical arrangement, electronic rearrangment, chemical kinetics, chemical thermodynamics, and specific reactions are vital. Physical changes including melting and freezing, boiling and condensation, sublimation, mixing, and separation are vital. The materials of which the earth is made are chemical substances. These are mostly in the form of mixtures. Pure compounds are rarely found. Water is particularly abundant. The earth's chemical composition includes a study of the elements it is composed of. Oxygen is the most important element on earth. Most of it is found chemically bound in rocks, but it is also present in bound form in water, and a component of the atmosphere. Hydrogen is found principally in the form of its compounds, since it is a light, volatile gas and escapes from the lower atmosphere. Physics The structure of matter is especially important. Studies of bulk matter and its traditional forms of solids, liquids, gases, and also plasma is highly useful. Molecular physics including chemical bonding, molecular structure, and molecular interaction can also be applied. Application of atomic physics includes some nuclear but more atomic electronic physics. Parts of subatomic physics with particles and interactions is significant. Quantum physics is little used. Relativity theory including general relativity and special relativity is also little used. Electromagnetism is useful. Optics including electromagnetic waves, geometric optics, physical optics, quantum optics, and the electromagnetic spectrum is useful. Magnetism is useful because the earth has a magnetic field. Electric current elements, current assemblages, field, force, flux, and magnetic properties of matter are all useful. Electric current with current definition, EMF, resistance, DC circuits, and AC circuits can also be used. Electrostatics including concepts of electric charge, charge distributios, electric force, field, flux, capactitance, and electrical properties of matter is somewhat useful. In Thermodynamics nonclassical thermodynamics including advanced versions of systems, states, and process is useful.Classical thermodynamics including systems, states, and processes is also useful. Statistical mechanics is at too small a scale to be really useful. Mechanics is used extensively. Gravitation is used fairly heavily. Surface gravitation is part of it. Particle celestial mechanics, rigid body celestial mechanics, and nonrigid celestial mechanics can also be applied. Nonrigid mechanics and studies of elastic bodies, fluid mechanics, and wave mechanics is most useful. Rigid body mechanics including rotational dynamics, static systems, and dynamic systems is much more applicable. Rigid body description and motion including extended bodies and position, orientation, linear and angular velocity, linear and angular acceleration can be identified. Particle mechanics including particle systems is somewhat useful. Particle systems including system properties, interactions, and simplified systems can be used. Energetics including work, energy, and power also includes some fundamental concepts. Kinetics including concepts of mass, momentum, force, and types and cases of force is also useful. Kinematics including concepts of types and cases of motion, acceleration, velocity, and position is udeful. The earth and earth systems can only be described as particles in very limited circumstances.

History

Prehistory

Early prehistory including the Pliocene, early Pleistocene, early mid Pleistocene, late mid Pleistocene, and late Pleistocene can be connected. Middle prehistory including the 5th decamillennium BP, 4th decamillennium BP, 3rd decamillennium BP, and 2nd decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory including the early 8th millennium BC, late 8th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, late 7th millennium BC, early 6th millennium BC, and late 6th millennium BC can be connected.

Antiquity

The 5th millennium BC including the early 5th millennium BC, early mid 5th millennium BC, mid 5th millennium BC, late mid 5th millennium BC, and late 5th millennium BC can be connected. The 4th millennium BC including the early 4th millennium BC, early mid 4th millennium BC, mid 4th millennium BC, late mid 4th millennium BC, and late 4th millennium BC can be connected. The 3rd millennium BC including the early 3rd millennium BC, early mid 3rd millennium BC, mid 3rd millennium BC, late mid 3rd millennium BC, and late 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The 2nd millennium BC including the early 2nd millennium BC, early mid 2nd millennium BC, mid 2nd millennium BC, late mid 2nd millennium BC, and late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The early 1st millennium BC including the 10th century BC, 9th century BC, 8th century BC, 7th century BC, and 6th century BC can be connected.

Classical and medieval history

Significant findings were made in early classical times including the 5th century BC, 4th century BC, 3rd century BC, 2nd century BC, and 1st century BC. Late classical times including the 1st century CE, 2nd century CE, 3rd century CE, 4th century CE, and 5th century CE can be connected. Early medieval times including the 6th century, 7th century, 8th century, 9th century, and 10th century can be considered. Late medieval times including the 11th century, 12th century, 13th century, 14th century, 15th century.

Modern history

I do not yet have many developments of the 16th century including the early 16th century, early mid 16th century, mid 16th century, late mid 16th century, or late 16th century listed.

1492-1504 In four voyages, Columbus brings awareness of the "New World" of the Americas to the "Old World" of Europe and Asia.
1497-1499 da Gama reaches India by sailing around Africa, initiating the European exploration and exploitation of Asia and Africa.
1519 - 1521. Magellan leads first expedition to sail around the world.

In the 17th century, Newtonian mechanics began to explain and predict a number of phenomena about the earth. I do not yet have specific details for the early 17th century, early mid 17th century, mid 17th century, or late mid 17th century. The late 17th century including the early 1680s, late 1680s, early 1690s, and late 1690s can be connected.

In the 18th century, there was exploration of the various phenomena of earth science, including increased mapping, and increasingly scientific observation of atmospheric phenoma, such as the weather. I do not yet have specific details for the early 18th century, early mid-18th century, mid 18th century, late-mid 18th century, or late 18th century.

In the 19th century, geology developed as a science, studies of the oceans and understanding of the water cycle, and the beginnings of understanding of the weather and climate developed. Exploration, discovery, and mapping of the surface of the earth, except for the far arctic and antarctic regions, was essentially complete. Details of the early 19th century, early-mid 19th century, mid-19th century, the late-mid 19th century, and the late 19th century are incomplete.

20th Century

Understanding of physics, chemistry, and astronomy, and biology, and techniques of drilling, submarine vehicles, aeronautics, and space technology have all vastly improved understanding of the earth.

For instance, in the early 20th century, in 1901 - 1908 Marconi's use of radio for long-distance communication illustrated properties of the upper atmosphere. The early 1900s, late 1900s, early 1910s, and late 1810s can be connected. In the early-mid 20th century, the use of aircraft also began to enhance study of the earth sciences in the early 1920s, late 1920s, early 1930s, and late 1930s. Progress in all areas of earth science has continued in the mid 20th century including the early 1940s, late 1940s, early 1950s, and late 1950s. The late mid 20th century including the early 1960s, late 1960s, early 1970s, and late 1970s can be connected.

Late 20th century

The early 1980s including 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, and 1985 can be connected. The late 1980s including 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, and 1990 can be connected. The early 1990s including 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995 can be connected. The late 1990s including 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, and 2000 can be connected.

Early 21st century

The early 2000s including 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 can be connected. The late 2000s down to 2006 and 2007 can be considered. 2008 including the first quarter, second quarter, third quarter with July, August, and September can be considered.

5 Sep 2008 Estimates of sea-level rise due to global warming were scaled back.

15 Sept 2008 - NASA scientists reported that the Ozone hole over the Antarctic had reached its largest expanse, 27 million square kilometers vs 26 million square kilometers in 2006. European Scientists at ESA concurred.

The fourth quarter including October and November can be connected. 2009 including the first quarte 2009, second quarter 2009, third quarter 2009, and fourth quarter 2009 can be connected. 2010 including the first quarter 2010, second quarter 2010, third quarter 2010, and fourth quarter 2010 can be connected.

The early 2010s can be connected. 2011 can be connected. The first quarter 2011 can be connected. January 2011 including 2011 week 1, 2011 week 2, 2011 week 3, 2011 week 4, 2011 week 5, and 2011 week 6 can be connected. February 2011, and March 2011 can be connected. The second quarter 2011 including April 2011, May 2011, and June 2011 can be connected.

Its future can be connected. The near future including next months, next quarter, and next year can be connected. The middle future and far future are unpredictable.

Sociology

Peoples of the world

Peoples give particular examples of the study of earth science. African peoples can be connected. Some information can be gathered from particular nations, starting with Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, and the Philippines. Western civilization including Russia has been most influential. Anglic peoples such as those of the United States have contributed substantially. Latin peoples including those of Brazil seem to have contributed less. Asiatic peoples including Bangladesh have contributed to earth science. South Asian peoples including those of India and Pakistan have contributed. Oriental peoples including China have contributed. Southeast Asian peoples including those of Indonesia can be connected. American Indian peoples such as those found in the United States and Brazil have made few direct contributions to earth science.

Communities

Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City can be identified.

Social structure and change

Social change

Particular changes and movements including the agrarian revolution can be connected. The agricultural revolution can be connected. The agrarian revolution including bronze age movements, early iron age movements, late iron age movments, and modernization can be connected. The Industrial revolution including the early industrial revolution, middle industrial revolution, and late industrial revolution can be connected. Social change factors including institutional change, cultural change, demographic change, and natural change can be connected. Social change processes including innovation, transmission, adaptation, and extinction can be connected.

Social types

Industrial societies can be connected. Agrarian societies can be connected. Horticultural societies can be connected. Hunting and gathering societies can be connected.

Social structure including institutional structure, cultural structure, and anthropological structure can be connected. Community and regional structure can be connected. Class structure can be connected.

Institutions

Religion

Religious influence can be outlined by examining particular traditions such as Abrahamic, Asiatic, Secular, and pagan traditions. Religious organization including highly structured, fragmented, and loosely structured organization can be considered. Religious practice can be connected. Religious belief can be connected.

Government has sponsored a great deal of research in it, and law, government structure, and government activity can be connected. Particular governments including international government, national government, and local government can be connected.

Economics including economic activities, industries, and economic systems can be connected. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and schools will be very useful. Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families seem to be moderately useful.

Culture

Behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events can be applied. Conceptual culture is especially valuable. Language and graphic arts are useful. There are valuable connections with literature and literary works. Mathematics, applied science, and philosophy can be connected. Material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation technology, communication technology, and other acrtifacts will be useful.

Anthropology

Some particular groups focus on earth science. Human geography including divisions of Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, and Oceania is closely connected to it. Human ecology including environmental impacts on people, other life forms, and human change of the environment is more important. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion seems to be weakly connected. Demography including population change, population size and structure, death, migration, and births seems to be weakly connected. Social foundations including group behavior, social group types, social control interaction, and social presentation among earth scientists are useful.

Personal studies

The biography list will refer to particular scientists and students.

Psychology including social psychology, personality, developmental psychology, mental disorders, behavior patterns, mind, and behavioral elements is also important. The capabilities and limitations of the human body have some connection to this. Form and appearance, life cycle, disease, and body functions and systems are somewhat indirectly useful.

Other sciences

Biology

Biohistory including the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras is important. Ecology including behavioral ecology, population ecology, community ecology, systems ecology, evolution, ecosystems, and biogeography will be useful. Systematics incuding microbes, protists, plants, fungi, and animals are also significant. Organism biology including habitat, tisses, organ systems, form, life cycle, and behavior is also useful. Cell biology including anatomy, behavior, and types are useful. Processes of molecular biology including inorganics, small organics, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, may affect the entire earth.

Links to other Sites:
Yahoo directory - Earth Sciences

Astronomy

Cosmology and galactic astronomy are only very indirectly applicable to earth science. It is somewhat better connected to stellar astronomy including the interstellar medium, stars, star clusters, and astrocartography. It depends most heavily on solar system astronomy. The sun is important, and Solar planetary systems are also essential because earth is one of the inner planets. The gas giants and outer dwarfs planets are not as significant. Smaller bodies and the interplanetary medium are connected, and it is connected to solar system history.

Chemistry

Chemical systems including organic, inorganic, gaseous and plasma, liquid, and solid systems are all important in various parts of earth study.

Changes in the earth's materials are chemical changes. Nuclear reactions of radioactive decay and fission can be identifed. Fusion rarely occurs. Chemical reactions and stoichiometry, mechanical arrangement, electronic rearrangment, chemical kinetics, chemical thermodynamics, and specific reactions are vital. Physical changes including melting and freezing, boiling and condensation, sublimation, mixing, and separation are vital.

The materials of which the earth is made are chemical substances. These are mostly in the form of mixtures. Pure compounds are rarely found. Water is particularly abundant. The earth's chemical composition includes a study of the elements it is composed of. Oxygen is the most important element on earth. Most of it is found chemically bound in rocks, but it is also present in bound form in water, and a component of the atmosphere. Hydrogen is found principally in the form of its compounds, since it is a light, volatile gas and escapes from the lower atmosphere.

Physics

The structure of matter is especially important. Studies of bulk matter and its traditional forms of solids, liquids, gases, and also plasma is highly useful. Molecular physics including chemical bonding, molecular structure, and molecular interaction can also be applied. Application of atomic physics includes some nuclear but more atomic electronic physics. Parts of subatomic physics with particles and interactions is significant.

Quantum physics is little used. Relativity theory including general relativity and special relativity is also little used.

Electromagnetism is useful. Optics including electromagnetic waves, geometric optics, physical optics, quantum optics, and the electromagnetic spectrum is useful. Magnetism is useful because the earth has a magnetic field. Electric current elements, current assemblages, field, force, flux, and magnetic properties of matter are all useful. Electric current with current definition, EMF, resistance, DC circuits, and AC circuits can also be used. Electrostatics including concepts of electric charge, charge distributios, electric force, field, flux, capactitance, and electrical properties of matter is somewhat useful.

In Thermodynamics nonclassical thermodynamics including advanced versions of systems, states, and process is useful.Classical thermodynamics including systems, states, and processes is also useful. Statistical mechanics is at too small a scale to be really useful.

Mechanics is used extensively.

Gravitation is used fairly heavily. Surface gravitation is part of it. Particle celestial mechanics, rigid body celestial mechanics, and nonrigid celestial mechanics can also be applied. Nonrigid mechanics and studies of elastic bodies, fluid mechanics, and wave mechanics is most useful. Rigid body mechanics including rotational dynamics, static systems, and dynamic systems is much more applicable. Rigid body description and motion including extended bodies and position, orientation, linear and angular velocity, linear and angular acceleration can be identified.

Particle mechanics including particle systems is somewhat useful. Particle systems including system properties, interactions, and simplified systems can be used. Energetics including work, energy, and power also includes some fundamental concepts. Kinetics including concepts of mass, momentum, force, and types and cases of force is also useful. Kinematics including concepts of types and cases of motion, acceleration, velocity, and position is udeful. The earth and earth systems can only be described as particles in very limited circumstances.

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