Chemistry


Chemistry includes the study of specific substances, the changes and reactions they undergo, and specific chemical systems. The dividing line between physics and chemistry is not clear, and the two subjects overlap substantially. On this site, physics deals with general laws applicable to all substances, while chemistry involves the applications of these laws to specific substances and their changes. Chemistry is sometimes called the central science, because it involves the study of all forms of matter, including those observable in the heavens, the earth, and living things.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience Science Chemical systems Chemical change Substances
It is very practically applied in the use and manufacture of substances and products in industry. In this section, the focus is on "pure" or theoretical chemistry. Applications of it are considered under the general heading of culture or economics.

Chemistry includes the study of specific substances, the changes and reactions they undergo, and specific chemical systems. The dividing line between physics and chemistry is not clear, and the two subjects overlap substantially. On this site, physics deals with general laws applicable to all substances, while chemistry involves the applications of these laws to specific substances and their changes.

Chemistry is sometimes called the central science, because it involves the study of all forms of matter, including those observable in the heavens, the earth, and living things.

Science

It is very practically applied in the use and manufacture of substances and products in industry. In this section, the focus is on "pure" or theoretical chemistry. Applications of it are considered under the general heading of culture or economics.

Systems

This section will include major traditional fields of chemistry including organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, gas and plasma chemistry, liquid chemistry, and solid state chemistry.

Changes

There are three major categories of chemical change: Physical changes, chemical reactions, and nuclear reactions,

Substances

There are three major categories of substances: mixtures, compounds, and elements.


History Prehistory Early prehistory including the Pliocene, early Pleistocene, early mid Pleistocene, late mid Pleistocene, and late Pleistocene can be connected. Middle prehistory including the 5th decamillennium BP, 4th decamillennium BP, 3rd decamillennium BP, and 2nd decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory including the early 8th millennium BC, late 8th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, late 7th millennium BC, early 6th millennium BC, and late 6th millennium BC can be connected. Antiquity The 5th millennium BC including the early 5th millennium BC, early mid 5th millennium BC, mid 5th millennium BC, late mid 5th millennium BC, and late 5th millennium BC can be connected. The 4th millennium BC including the early 4th millennium BC, early mid 4th millennium BC, mid 4th millennium BC, late mid 4th millennium BC, and late 4th millennium BC can be connected. The 3rd Millennium BC including the early 3rd millennium BC, early mid 3rd millennium BC, mid 3rd millennium BC, late mid 3rd millennium BC, and late 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The 2nd millennium BC including the early 2nd millennium BC, early mid 2nd millennium BC, mid 2nd millennium BC, late mid 2nd millennium BC, and late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The early 1st millennium BC including the 10th century BC, 9th century BC, 8th century BC, 7th century BC, and 6th century BC can be connected. Classical and medieval history Early classical history including the 5th century BC, 4th century BC, 3rd century BC, 2nd century BC, and 1st century BC can be connected. Late classical history including the 1st century CE, 2nd century CE, 3rd century CE, 4th century CE, and 5th century CE can be connected. Early medieval history including the 6th century, 7th century, 8th century, 9th century, and 10th century can be connected. Late medieval history including the 11th century, 12th century, 13th century, 14th century, and 15th century can be connected. Modern history In the 16th century its methods were not yet well developed. I do not yet have details of the early 16th century, early mid 16th century, mid 16th century, late mid 16th century, or late 16th century. The 17th century including the early 17th century, early mid 17th century, mid 17th century, late mid 17th century, and late 17th century can be connected. In the 18th century, the fundamental reactions and substances were recognized. The early 18th century including the early 1700s, late 1700s, early 1710s, and late 1710s can be connected. early mid 18th century, mid 18th century, late-mid 18th century, or late 18th century. In the 19th century the science developed substantially, although I also lack specific links to the early 19th century, early mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late mid 19th century, or late 19th century. 20th century In the early 20th century, chemistry benefitted greatly from developments in thermodynamics and optics. In the early-mid 20th century, advances in quantum theory were beginning to be applied in chemistry. In the mid 20th century, methods using radioactivity and, following World War II, much of nuclear chemistry was worked out, as well as methods of quantum chemistry, and many new compounds were synthesized. In the late-mid 20th century, chemical theory advanced more slowly, though methods continued to develop. The early 1960s, late 1960s, early 1979s, and late 1970s can be connected. Late 20th century The early 1980s including 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, and 1985 can be connected. The late 1980s including 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, and 1990 can be connected. The early 1990s includin g1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995 can be connected. The late 1990s including 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, and 2000 can be connected. Early 21st century The early 2000s including 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 can be connected. The late 2000s including 2006 and 2007 can be connected. 2008 including the first quarter, second quarter, third quarter during July, August, and September, and fourth quarter including October and November can be connected. 2009 including the first quarter 2009, second quarter 2009, third quarter 2009, and fourth quarter 2009 can be connected. 2010 including the first quarter 2010, second quarter 2010, third quarter 2010, and fourth quarter 201 can be connected. The early 2010s can be connected. 2011 can be connected. The first quarter 2011 can be connected. January 2011 including 2011 week 1, 2011 week 2, 2011 week 3, 2011 week 4, 2011 week 5, and 2011 week 6 can be connected. February 2011 and March 2011 can be connected. The second quarter 2011 including April 2011, May 2011, and June 2011 can be connected. Its future has not been examined. The near future including next month, next quarter, and next year can be connected. The middle future and far future can be considered.
Sociology Peoples of the world, communities, and social structure and change can be applied to chemistry. Various peoples of the world have made contributions to chemistry. Those of African peoples have been negligible. Particular nations can be considered. Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, and the Philippines can be connected. Western civilization including Russia has made the greatest contributions to chemistry. Anglic peoples including the United States have been prominent. Latin peoples including those of Brazilhave made notable contributions. Asiatic peoples including those of Bangladesh have made contributions to chemistry. South Asian peoples including those of India and Pakistan have made some contributions. Oriental peoples including those of China have made contributions. Southeast Asian peoples including those of Indonesia may have made some contributions. Contributions of American Indian peoples including those found in the United States and Brazil have been negligible. Communities Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City will be significant. Social structure and change Social change Particular changes and movements. The Agricultural revolution can be connected. The agrarian revolution including bronze age movements, early iron age movements, late iron age movements, and modernization can be connected. The industrial revolution including the early industrial revolution, middle industrial revolution, and late industrial revolution can be connected. Social change factors including institutional change, cultural change, demographic change, and natural change can be connected. Social change processes including innovation, transmission, adaptation, and extinction can be connected. Social types Industrial societies can be connected. Agrarian societies can be connected. Horticultural societies can be connected. Hunting and gathering societies can be connected. Social structure including class structure, institutional structure, cultural structure, and anthropological structure can be connected. Community and regional structure can be connected.
Institutions Religion Particular religious traditions of the world including Abrahamic religion, pagan religion, Asiatic religion, and secularism can be connected. Religious organization including highly structured, fragmented and loosely structured organization seems to be at besst weakly connected. Religious practice may be connected. Religious belief might be connected. Government including law, government structure, government activity, and particular govnerments seems to be fairly weakly connected. Economics including economic activity, industries, and economic systems is highly important and integrated with chemistry. Education, including chemistry teaching, cultural institutions, chemical research, school systems, and particular schools is very important. Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families appear to be only weakly influential.
Culture Behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events has some important elements. Conceptual culture is also significant. Language, graphic arts, and literature are important. Mathematics is necessary.Applied science, particularly including measurement, is also important. Philosophy is less important than it once was. Material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation technology, communication technology, and other artifacts is useful in chemistry.
Anthropology Chemistry is connected to some particular groups. Human geography and ecology have limited applicability. Physical anthropology has limited applicability.Demography including population change, population structure, death, migration, and birth can be connected. Social foundations including social group types, social group behavior, social control, social interaction, and social presentation will be useful.
Personal studies Some individuals in the biography list have made significant contributions to chemistry. These may perhaps include: Aristotle Lavoisier Psychology including social psychology, personality, mental disorders, developmental psychology, behavior patterns, mind, and behavioral fundamentals and the human body including form and appearance, life cycle, disease, body function, and body structure can be applied to chemistry somewhat.
Other sciences Biology Biohistory, ecology, systematics, organism biology, and cytology principally illustrate applications. Biochemistry and molecular biology have the strongest applications.	Links to other sites: Yahoo directory - Chemistry
Earth science Earth science principally demonstrates applications of chemistry. Geohistory has some connection to chemistry. Physical geography including mapping, terrestrial, and oceanic geography is also useful. Hydrospheric science including oceanography, glaciology, groundwater, and fresh water suggests some applications. Atmospheric science including atmospheric structure, meteorology, and climatology suggest other applications. Geology including minerals, rocks, landdforms, geologic processs, and interior geoology suggests even more. Astronomy The abundance and origin of chemical elements and substances is connected to astronomy, which also provides information about applications. Cosmology and galactic astronomy have some application. Stellar astronomy including interstellar medium, stars, star clusters, and astrocartography is somewhat useful in these studies. Solar system astronomy including the sun, planetary systems, minor bodies, interplanetary medium, and solar system history is particularly useful. Physics The structure of matter is vital and overlaps substantially with chemistry. Bulk matter, including plasma, gas, liquids, and solids is particularly important. Molecular physics including bonding, molecular structure, and molecular behavior is often considered an essential part of chemistry. Atomic physics includes discussion of atoms, which are the smallest units of chemical elements. Subatomic physics includes discussion of the fundamental particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons, which are the smallest components of atoms, and their interactions with one another. Quantum mechanics is used rather heavily in chemistry.Relativity is not directly used much in chemistry. Electromagnetism is highly important. Optics including electromagnetic waves, geometric optics, physical optics, quantum optics, and the electromagnetic spectrum is also useful to various parts of chemical study. Magnetism including electric current elements, current assemblages, magnetic field, force, flux, potential, and magnetic properties of matter can also be applied. Electric current involving durrent definitions, EMF, resistance, DC Circuits, and AC surcuits is involved in electrochemistry. Electrostatics including electric charge, electric charge distributions, electric force, electric field, flux, potential, capacitance, and electrical properties of matter have applications in chemistry. Chemical thermodynamics is vital. Chemistry should also include some nonclassical thermodynamics, including systems, states, and dynamic processes. For practical purposes, classical thermodynamics with systems, states, and processes is commonly applied. For theoretical purposes, statistical mechanics is important. Quantum statistical mechanics and relativistic statistical mechanics are used less than classical statistical mechanics. Mechanics is useful. Gravitation including nonrigid celestial mechanics, rigid body celestial mechanics, particle celestial mechanics, and surface gravitation is somwhat important. Nonrigid mechanics including wave mechanics, fluid mechanics, and deformable bodies is most useful. Rigid body mechanics seems to be slightly less useful than general mechanics. Dynamic systems static systems, and Rotational dynamics may be somewhat useful. Rigid body description and motion is useful, for instance, in describing shapes of chemical systems where this is important. Position and orientation, linear and angular velocity, linear and angular acceleration, and types of motions can be used. Particle mechanics is somewhat useful. Particle systems including simplified systems, particle interactions, and system properties can also be used in chemistry. Energetics involving concepts of power, mechanical energy, and work is also fundamental in studies of chemistry. Mechanical kinetics includes types and cases of force, force and the laws of motion, momentum, and the fundamental concept of mass. This should not be confused with chemical kinetics, which is the study of rates of chemical reaction. Kinematics involving types of motion, acceleration, velocity, and position is sometimes useful. Various things in chemistry can be described as particles.

History

Prehistory

Early prehistory including the Pliocene, early Pleistocene, early mid Pleistocene, late mid Pleistocene, and late Pleistocene can be connected. Middle prehistory including the 5th decamillennium BP, 4th decamillennium BP, 3rd decamillennium BP, and 2nd decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory including the early 8th millennium BC, late 8th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, late 7th millennium BC, early 6th millennium BC, and late 6th millennium BC can be connected.

Antiquity

The 5th millennium BC including the early 5th millennium BC, early mid 5th millennium BC, mid 5th millennium BC, late mid 5th millennium BC, and late 5th millennium BC can be connected. The 4th millennium BC including the early 4th millennium BC, early mid 4th millennium BC, mid 4th millennium BC, late mid 4th millennium BC, and late 4th millennium BC can be connected. The 3rd Millennium BC including the early 3rd millennium BC, early mid 3rd millennium BC, mid 3rd millennium BC, late mid 3rd millennium BC, and late 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The 2nd millennium BC including the early 2nd millennium BC, early mid 2nd millennium BC, mid 2nd millennium BC, late mid 2nd millennium BC, and late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The early 1st millennium BC including the 10th century BC, 9th century BC, 8th century BC, 7th century BC, and 6th century BC can be connected.

Classical and medieval history

Early classical history including the 5th century BC, 4th century BC, 3rd century BC, 2nd century BC, and 1st century BC can be connected. Late classical history including the 1st century CE, 2nd century CE, 3rd century CE, 4th century CE, and 5th century CE can be connected. Early medieval history including the 6th century, 7th century, 8th century, 9th century, and 10th century can be connected. Late medieval history including the 11th century, 12th century, 13th century, 14th century, and 15th century can be connected.

Modern history

In the 16th century its methods were not yet well developed. I do not yet have details of the early 16th century, early mid 16th century, mid 16th century, late mid 16th century, or late 16th century. The 17th century including the early 17th century, early mid 17th century, mid 17th century, late mid 17th century, and late 17th century can be connected.

In the 18th century, the fundamental reactions and substances were recognized. The early 18th century including the early 1700s, late 1700s, early 1710s, and late 1710s can be connected. early mid 18th century, mid 18th century, late-mid 18th century, or late 18th century.

In the 19th century the science developed substantially, although I also lack specific links to the early 19th century, early mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late mid 19th century, or late 19th century.

20th century

In the early 20th century, chemistry benefitted greatly from developments in thermodynamics and optics. In the early-mid 20th century, advances in quantum theory were beginning to be applied in chemistry. In the mid 20th century, methods using radioactivity and, following World War II, much of nuclear chemistry was worked out, as well as methods of quantum chemistry, and many new compounds were synthesized. In the late-mid 20th century, chemical theory advanced more slowly, though methods continued to develop. The early 1960s, late 1960s, early 1979s, and late 1970s can be connected.

Late 20th century

The early 1980s including 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, and 1985 can be connected. The late 1980s including 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, and 1990 can be connected. The early 1990s includin g1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995 can be connected. The late 1990s including 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, and 2000 can be connected.

Early 21st century

The early 2000s including 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 can be connected.

The late 2000s including 2006 and 2007 can be connected. 2008 including the first quarter, second quarter, third quarter during July, August, and September, and fourth quarter including October and November can be connected. 2009 including the first quarter 2009, second quarter 2009, third quarter 2009, and fourth quarter 2009 can be connected. 2010 including the first quarter 2010, second quarter 2010, third quarter 2010, and fourth quarter 201 can be connected.

The early 2010s can be connected. 2011 can be connected. The first quarter 2011 can be connected. January 2011 including 2011 week 1, 2011 week 2, 2011 week 3, 2011 week 4, 2011 week 5, and 2011 week 6 can be connected. February 2011 and March 2011 can be connected. The second quarter 2011 including April 2011, May 2011, and June 2011 can be connected.

Its future has not been examined. The near future including next month, next quarter, and next year can be connected. The middle future and far future can be considered.

Sociology

Peoples of the world, communities, and social structure and change can be applied to chemistry.

Various peoples of the world have made contributions to chemistry. Those of African peoples have been negligible.

Particular nations can be considered. Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, and the Philippines can be connected.

Western civilization including Russia has made the greatest contributions to chemistry. Anglic peoples including the United States have been prominent. Latin peoples including those of Brazilhave made notable contributions.

Asiatic peoples including those of Bangladesh have made contributions to chemistry. South Asian peoples including those of India and Pakistan have made some contributions. Oriental peoples including those of China have made contributions. Southeast Asian peoples including those of Indonesia may have made some contributions. Contributions of American Indian peoples including those found in the United States and Brazil have been negligible.

Communities

Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City will be significant.

Social structure and change

Social change

Particular changes and movements.

The Agricultural revolution can be connected. The agrarian revolution including bronze age movements, early iron age movements, late iron age movements, and modernization can be connected. The industrial revolution including the early industrial revolution, middle industrial revolution, and late industrial revolution can be connected. Social change factors including institutional change, cultural change, demographic change, and natural change can be connected. Social change processes including innovation, transmission, adaptation, and extinction can be connected.

Social types

Industrial societies can be connected. Agrarian societies can be connected. Horticultural societies can be connected. Hunting and gathering societies can be connected.

Social structure including class structure, institutional structure, cultural structure, and anthropological structure can be connected. Community and regional structure can be connected.

Institutions

Religion

Particular religious traditions of the world including Abrahamic religion, pagan religion, Asiatic religion, and secularism can be connected. Religious organization including highly structured, fragmented and loosely structured organization seems to be at besst weakly connected. Religious practice may be connected. Religious belief might be connected.

Government including law, government structure, government activity, and particular govnerments seems to be fairly weakly connected. Economics including economic activity, industries, and economic systems is highly important and integrated with chemistry. Education, including chemistry teaching, cultural institutions, chemical research, school systems, and particular schools is very important. Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families appear to be only weakly influential.

Culture

Behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events has some important elements. Conceptual culture is also significant. Language, graphic arts, and literature are important. Mathematics is necessary.Applied science, particularly including measurement, is also important. Philosophy is less important than it once was. Material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation technology, communication technology, and other artifacts is useful in chemistry.

Anthropology

Chemistry is connected to some particular groups. Human geography and ecology have limited applicability. Physical anthropology has limited applicability.Demography including population change, population structure, death, migration, and birth can be connected. Social foundations including social group types, social group behavior, social control, social interaction, and social presentation will be useful.

Personal studies

Some individuals in the biography list have made significant contributions to chemistry. These may perhaps include:

Psychology including social psychology, personality, mental disorders, developmental psychology, behavior patterns, mind, and behavioral fundamentals and the human body including form and appearance, life cycle, disease, body function, and body structure can be applied to chemistry somewhat.

Other sciences

Biology

Biohistory, ecology, systematics, organism biology, and cytology principally illustrate applications. Biochemistry and molecular biology have the strongest applications.

Links to other sites:
Yahoo directory - Chemistry

Earth science

Earth science principally demonstrates applications of chemistry. Geohistory has some connection to chemistry. Physical geography including mapping, terrestrial, and oceanic geography is also useful. Hydrospheric science including oceanography, glaciology, groundwater, and fresh water suggests some applications. Atmospheric science including atmospheric structure, meteorology, and climatology suggest other applications. Geology including minerals, rocks, landdforms, geologic processs, and interior geoology suggests even more.

Astronomy

The abundance and origin of chemical elements and substances is connected to astronomy, which also provides information about applications. Cosmology and galactic astronomy have some application. Stellar astronomy including interstellar medium, stars, star clusters, and astrocartography is somewhat useful in these studies. Solar system astronomy including the sun, planetary systems, minor bodies, interplanetary medium, and solar system history is particularly useful.

Physics

The structure of matter is vital and overlaps substantially with chemistry. Bulk matter, including plasma, gas, liquids, and solids is particularly important. Molecular physics including bonding, molecular structure, and molecular behavior is often considered an essential part of chemistry. Atomic physics includes discussion of atoms, which are the smallest units of chemical elements. Subatomic physics includes discussion of the fundamental particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons, which are the smallest components of atoms, and their interactions with one another.

Quantum mechanics is used rather heavily in chemistry.Relativity is not directly used much in chemistry.

Electromagnetism is highly important. Optics including electromagnetic waves, geometric optics, physical optics, quantum optics, and the electromagnetic spectrum is also useful to various parts of chemical study. Magnetism including electric current elements, current assemblages, magnetic field, force, flux, potential, and magnetic properties of matter can also be applied. Electric current involving durrent definitions, EMF, resistance, DC Circuits, and AC surcuits is involved in electrochemistry. Electrostatics including electric charge, electric charge distributions, electric force, electric field, flux, potential, capacitance, and electrical properties of matter have applications in chemistry.

Chemical thermodynamics is vital. Chemistry should also include some nonclassical thermodynamics, including systems, states, and dynamic processes. For practical purposes, classical thermodynamics with systems, states, and processes is commonly applied. For theoretical purposes, statistical mechanics is important. Quantum statistical mechanics and relativistic statistical mechanics are used less than classical statistical mechanics.

Mechanics is useful.

Gravitation including nonrigid celestial mechanics, rigid body celestial mechanics, particle celestial mechanics, and surface gravitation is somwhat important.

Nonrigid mechanics including wave mechanics, fluid mechanics, and deformable bodies is most useful.

Rigid body mechanics seems to be slightly less useful than general mechanics. Dynamic systems static systems, and Rotational dynamics may be somewhat useful. Rigid body description and motion is useful, for instance, in describing shapes of chemical systems where this is important. Position and orientation, linear and angular velocity, linear and angular acceleration, and types of motions can be used.

Particle mechanics is somewhat useful. Particle systems including simplified systems, particle interactions, and system properties can also be used in chemistry. Energetics involving concepts of power, mechanical energy, and work is also fundamental in studies of chemistry. Mechanical kinetics includes types and cases of force, force and the laws of motion, momentum, and the fundamental concept of mass. This should not be confused with chemical kinetics, which is the study of rates of chemical reaction. Kinematics involving types of motion, acceleration, velocity, and position is sometimes useful. Various things in chemistry can be described as particles.

Top