Astronomy


Astronomy includes the study of bodies beyond the earth. These include the sun, moon, and planets, in the division of planetary astronomy; the stars, in the division of stellar astronomy, galaxies, in the division of galactic astronomy, and the entire universe, in the division of cosmology.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience Science Cosmology Galactic astronomy Stellar astronomy Planetary astronomy

Astronomy includes the study of bodies beyond the earth. These include the sun, moon, and planets, in the division of planetary astronomy; the stars, in the division of stellar astronomy, galaxies, in the division of galactic astronomy, and the entire universe, in the division of cosmology.

Science

Solar System astronomy

Planetary astronomy includes the study of the solar system. Particular topics include the sun, planets, minor bodies, interplanetary medium, and Solar system history.

Stellar astronomy

Stellar astronomy includes the study of the interstellar medium, Stars and their classification and development, star clusters and assemblages, and astrocartography

Galactic astronomy

Galactic astronomy include the study of galaxies. Galactic astrocartography, galactic classes, and intergalactic medium.

Cosmology

Cosmology includes larger questions of the nature and origin of the universe. Many theories are speculative, and the subject is subject to fairly frequent revision and controversy.


Other sciences Modern astronomy depends heavily on physics. Mechanics is especially important. Particle mechanics can be applied in various areas of astronomy. Astronomical bodies can often be treated as particles. Kinematics including position, velocity, acceleration, and cases and types of motion can be examined. Kinetics including concepts of mass, momentum, force, and types and cases of force is also fundamental. Energetics including work, mechanical energy, and power and particle systems involving system properties, particle interactions, and simplified systems can also be applied.	Links to other sites: Yahoo Directory - Astronomy Wikipedia - Astronomy
Rigid body mechanics is useful. Rigid body description and motion involving extended bodies, position and orientiation, linear and rotational velocity, and linear and angular acceleration is useful. rotational dynamics, static systems, and dynamic systems can also be applied. Nonrigid mechanics including deformable bodies, fluid mechanics, and wave mechanics is highly applicable to astronomy. Gravitation is also useful. Surface gravitation is useful in planetary studies. Particle celestial mechanics using Newton's law of gravitation and Kepler's third law, rigid body celestial mechanics, and nonrigid celestial mechanics will be useful. Thermodynamics is important in astronomy. Statistical mechanics including classical statistical mechanics, relativistic statistical mechanics, and quantum statistical mechanics are useful in examining some of the extreme conditions that occur in astronomy. Classical thermodynamics including systems, states, and processes, and nonclassical thermodynamics and its systems, states, and processes are also important in astronomy. Electromagnetism is especially important. Electrostatics is mostly indirectly useful. Electric charge and charge distribution, electric forces, fields, flux, potential, capacitance and electrical properties of matter find some applications. Electric currents including current definition, EMF, resistance, DC Circuits, and AC circuits may also be useful. Magnetism including current elements, assemblies, magnetic field, force, flux, potential and magnetic properties of matter is also important in astronomy and astrophysics. Optics including electromagnetic waves, geometric optics, physical optics, quantum optics, and the electromagnetism is the primary means of observation in astronomy. Relativity, including special relativity with the finite speed of light and general relativity is a significant tool in several areas of astronomy. Quantum physics is also useful. Structure of matter is essential to astronomy. Subatomic physics including particles and interactions is useful. Atomic physics including nuclear physics and electronic physics is also useful. Molecular physics including bonding, molecular structure, and molecular behavior is also valuable. Bulk matter including solids, liquids, and gases is also useful, as are studies of exotic forms of matter. Astronomy depends heavily on chemistry. The study of particular substances is highly important. Elements are significant. By far the most abundant element in the universe is Hydrogen. Compounds and mixtures are also highly important. All areas of chemical change, including nuclear reactions of fusion, transmutation, radioactive decay, and fission are useful. Chemical reactions including stoichiometry, mechanical arrangment, electronic rearrangement, reaction thermodynamics and chemical kinetics and physical changes involving freezing, melting, sublimation, mixing, and separation are significant in astronomy. Chemical systems are also important in astronomy. Solid systems are useful, liquid systems less so, but gaseous systems are highly important. Astronomy relies heavily on inorganic systems. Organic chemistry is less significant. There are connections with earth science. The geology of the earth serves as a departure and reference point for the studies of other bodies. Minerals, rocks, landforms, geologic processes, and interior geology all offer guides. Hydrospheric science including oceanography, glaciology, groundwater and freshwater is not quite unique to earth, but it is not nearly as important in astronomy as it is on earth. Atmospheric science including atmospheric structure, meteorology, and climatology will be useful. Physical geography is useful chiefly as a guide and basis for analogy. Geohistory may be indirectly useful Astronomy does not depend heavily on biology, since the presence of life has not been confirmed for any other celestial body besides the earth. All applications are therefore somewhat speculative. Molecular biology is at the opposite end of a relative size scale. Cytology, organism biology, systematics, ecology, and biohistory are also unconfirmed. Personal studies The capabilities and limitations of the human body as they apply to astronomical study, connected to body systems and functions, disease, life cycle, and form are useful. This is also connected to some findings of psychology including behavioral fundamentals, mind, behavior patterns, mental disorders, developmental psychology, personality, and social psychology. It is also connected to particular astrornomers, some of whom can be found in biography list. Prominent astronomers include: Copernicus Galileo Newton Anthropology Social foundations including social presentation, social interaction, social control, social group behavior, and group types can be connected. Demography including birth, death, migration, population size and structure, and population change can be adapted to study of astronomers. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion is not highly useful. Human ecology including effects of the environment on people, other life forms, and effects of people on the environment may be a little more useful. Human geography including European geography, Asian geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography, is also somewhat useful in astronomy. Particular groups are highly significant. Culture Astronomy has connections to material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstufs, clothing, transportation technology, communications technology, and other artifacts. Conceptual culture is also applicable. Language, graphics, and literature are all significant. Mathematics is vital. Applied science, particularly including measurement, is important. Philosophy was once important but is now less so. Astronomy also has behavioral components including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events. Institutions Families including marriage, kinship, parenting, and particular families appear to be only weakly influential. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and paticular schools will be useful. Economics including economic activities, industries, and economic systems is somewhat indirectly useful to astronomy. Government including law, government structure, government activity, and particular governments is somewhat connected. Religion is fairly weakly connected. Religious beliefs, practices, organization, and particular religions have had some connection to astronomy. Sociology Social structure and change including social structure and social types can be considered. Social change including social change factors, processes, and particular changes can be connected. Communities such as Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City will also be useful. Various peoples of the world have made various contributions to astronomy. African peoples can be connected. Particular nations including Russia, Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, and the Philippines can be connected. Western civilization including Brazil has contributed substantially to astronomy. Anglic peoples including those of the United States have contributed substantially. Asiatic peoples including those of Bangladesh have contributed to astronomy. South Asian peoples including those of India and Pakistan have contributed also. Oriental peoples including those of China have contributed substantially. Southeast Asian peoples such as those of Indonesia seem to have contributed only marginally. American Indian peoples including those of the United States and Brazil can also be connected. History Astronomy is one of the oldest of the sciences, and evidence of its study can be found in prehistory. It is more readily dated to antiquity, and much of its study came in classical and medieval times. However, understanding of it is largely modern. Notable developments occurred in the 16th century. 1543 Copernicus publishes a heliocentric (sun-centered) theory of astronomy c. 1586 - c. 1637 Galileo makes important discoveries in physics and astronomy. With the widespread use of the telescope in the 17th century, more discoveries were made. c. 1604 - c. 1615 Kepler discovers and publishes his three laws of planetary motion. c. 1665 - c. 1704 Newton develops and publishes his theories of physics and astronomy. . Developments in the 18th century are too numerous to mention. In the 19th century, improvements in physics and technology led to even more understanding. The early 19th century, early mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century can be considered. The growth of astronomy in the 20th century has been substantial. Developments in the early 20th century, early mid 20th century, mid 20th century, and late mid 20th century can be followed. In the late 20th century, Progress has continued in all fields of astronomy, including planetary astronomy, stellar astronomy, galactic atronomy, and cosmology. The early 21st century including the early 2000s can also be considered. The late 2000s including 2006 and 2007 can be connected. 2008 including the first quarter, second quarter, third quarter with July, August, and September, and fourth quarter can be connected. Its future is unpredictable.

Other sciences

Modern astronomy depends heavily on physics. Mechanics is especially important. Particle mechanics can be applied in various areas of astronomy. Astronomical bodies can often be treated as particles. Kinematics including position, velocity, acceleration, and cases and types of motion can be examined. Kinetics including concepts of mass, momentum, force, and types and cases of force is also fundamental. Energetics including work, mechanical energy, and power and particle systems involving system properties, particle interactions, and simplified systems can also be applied.

Rigid body mechanics is useful. Rigid body description and motion involving extended bodies, position and orientiation, linear and rotational velocity, and linear and angular acceleration is useful. rotational dynamics, static systems, and dynamic systems can also be applied. Nonrigid mechanics including deformable bodies, fluid mechanics, and wave mechanics is highly applicable to astronomy.

Gravitation is also useful. Surface gravitation is useful in planetary studies. Particle celestial mechanics using Newton's law of gravitation and Kepler's third law, rigid body celestial mechanics, and nonrigid celestial mechanics will be useful.

Thermodynamics is important in astronomy. Statistical mechanics including classical statistical mechanics, relativistic statistical mechanics, and quantum statistical mechanics are useful in examining some of the extreme conditions that occur in astronomy. Classical thermodynamics including systems, states, and processes, and nonclassical thermodynamics and its systems, states, and processes are also important in astronomy.

Electromagnetism is especially important. Electrostatics is mostly indirectly useful. Electric charge and charge distribution, electric forces, fields, flux, potential, capacitance and electrical properties of matter find some applications. Electric currents including current definition, EMF, resistance, DC Circuits, and AC circuits may also be useful. Magnetism including current elements, assemblies, magnetic field, force, flux, potential and magnetic properties of matter is also important in astronomy and astrophysics. Optics including electromagnetic waves, geometric optics, physical optics, quantum optics, and the electromagnetism is the primary means of observation in astronomy.

Relativity, including special relativity with the finite speed of light and general relativity is a significant tool in several areas of astronomy. Quantum physics is also useful.

Structure of matter is essential to astronomy. Subatomic physics including particles and interactions is useful. Atomic physics including nuclear physics and electronic physics is also useful. Molecular physics including bonding, molecular structure, and molecular behavior is also valuable. Bulk matter including solids, liquids, and gases is also useful, as are studies of exotic forms of matter.

Astronomy depends heavily on chemistry. The study of particular substances is highly important. Elements are significant. By far the most abundant element in the universe is Hydrogen. Compounds and mixtures are also highly important. All areas of chemical change, including nuclear reactions of fusion, transmutation, radioactive decay, and fission are useful. Chemical reactions including stoichiometry, mechanical arrangment, electronic rearrangement, reaction thermodynamics and chemical kinetics and physical changes involving freezing, melting, sublimation, mixing, and separation are significant in astronomy. Chemical systems are also important in astronomy. Solid systems are useful, liquid systems less so, but gaseous systems are highly important. Astronomy relies heavily on inorganic systems. Organic chemistry is less significant.

There are connections with earth science. The geology of the earth serves as a departure and reference point for the studies of other bodies. Minerals, rocks, landforms, geologic processes, and interior geology all offer guides. Hydrospheric science including oceanography, glaciology, groundwater and freshwater is not quite unique to earth, but it is not nearly as important in astronomy as it is on earth. Atmospheric science including atmospheric structure, meteorology, and climatology will be useful. Physical geography is useful chiefly as a guide and basis for analogy. Geohistory may be indirectly useful

Astronomy does not depend heavily on biology, since the presence of life has not been confirmed for any other celestial body besides the earth. All applications are therefore somewhat speculative. Molecular biology is at the opposite end of a relative size scale. Cytology, organism biology, systematics, ecology, and biohistory are also unconfirmed.

Personal studies

The capabilities and limitations of the human body as they apply to astronomical study, connected to body systems and functions, disease, life cycle, and form are useful. This is also connected to some findings of psychology including behavioral fundamentals, mind, behavior patterns, mental disorders, developmental psychology, personality, and social psychology. It is also connected to particular astrornomers, some of whom can be found in biography list. Prominent astronomers include:

Anthropology

Social foundations including social presentation, social interaction, social control, social group behavior, and group types can be connected. Demography including birth, death, migration, population size and structure, and population change can be adapted to study of astronomers. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion is not highly useful. Human ecology including effects of the environment on people, other life forms, and effects of people on the environment may be a little more useful. Human geography including European geography, Asian geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography, is also somewhat useful in astronomy. Particular groups are highly significant.

Culture

Astronomy has connections to material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstufs, clothing, transportation technology, communications technology, and other artifacts. Conceptual culture is also applicable. Language, graphics, and literature are all significant. Mathematics is vital. Applied science, particularly including measurement, is important. Philosophy was once important but is now less so. Astronomy also has behavioral components including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events.

Institutions

Families including marriage, kinship, parenting, and particular families appear to be only weakly influential. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and paticular schools will be useful. Economics including economic activities, industries, and economic systems is somewhat indirectly useful to astronomy. Government including law, government structure, government activity, and particular governments is somewhat connected. Religion is fairly weakly connected. Religious beliefs, practices, organization, and particular religions have had some connection to astronomy.

Sociology

Social structure and change including social structure and social types can be considered. Social change including social change factors, processes, and particular changes can be connected. Communities such as Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City will also be useful. Various peoples of the world have made various contributions to astronomy. African peoples can be connected. Particular nations including Russia, Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, and the Philippines can be connected. Western civilization including Brazil has contributed substantially to astronomy. Anglic peoples including those of the United States have contributed substantially. Asiatic peoples including those of Bangladesh have contributed to astronomy. South Asian peoples including those of India and Pakistan have contributed also. Oriental peoples including those of China have contributed substantially. Southeast Asian peoples such as those of Indonesia seem to have contributed only marginally. American Indian peoples including those of the United States and Brazil can also be connected.

History

Astronomy is one of the oldest of the sciences, and evidence of its study can be found in prehistory. It is more readily dated to antiquity, and much of its study came in classical and medieval times. However, understanding of it is largely modern. Notable developments occurred in the 16th century.

1543 Copernicus publishes a heliocentric (sun-centered) theory of astronomy
c. 1586 - c. 1637 Galileo makes important discoveries in physics and astronomy.

With the widespread use of the telescope in the 17th century, more discoveries were made.

c. 1604 - c. 1615 Kepler discovers and publishes his three laws of planetary motion.
c. 1665 - c. 1704 Newton develops and publishes his theories of physics and astronomy. .

Developments in the 18th century are too numerous to mention. In the 19th century, improvements in physics and technology led to even more understanding. The early 19th century, early mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century can be considered. The growth of astronomy in the 20th century has been substantial. Developments in the early 20th century, early mid 20th century, mid 20th century, and late mid 20th century can be followed. In the late 20th century, Progress has continued in all fields of astronomy, including planetary astronomy, stellar astronomy, galactic atronomy, and cosmology. The early 21st century including the early 2000s can also be considered. The late 2000s including 2006 and 2007 can be connected. 2008 including the first quarter, second quarter, third quarter with July, August, and September, and fourth quarter can be connected.

Its future is unpredictable.

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