Astronomy

Astronomy includes the study of bodies beyond the earth. These include the sun, moon, and planets, in the division of planetary astronomy; the stars, in the division of stellar astronomy, galaxies, in the division of galactic astronomy, and the entire universe, in the division of cosmology.

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History

Astronomy is one of the oldest of the sciences.

Prehistory

Early prehistory including the Pliocene, early Pleistocene, early mid Pleistocene, late mid Pleistocene, and late Plesitocene can be connected. Middle prehistory including the 5th decamillennium BP, 4th decamillennium BP, 3rd decamillennium BP, 2nd decamillennium BP, and early 1st decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory including the early 8th millennium BC, late 8th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, late 7th millennium BC, early 6th millennium BC, and late 6th millennium BC can be connected.

Antiquity

The 5th millennium BC including the early 5th millennium BC, early mid 5th millennium BC, mid 5th millennium BC, late mid 5th millennium BC, and late 5th millennium BC can be connected. The 4th millennium BC including the early 4th millennium BC, early mid 4th millennium BC, mid 4th millennium BC, late mid 4th millennium BC, and late 4th millennium BC can be connected. The 3rd millennium BC including the early 3rd millennium BC, early mid 3rd millennium BC, mid 3rd millennium BC, late mid 3rd millennium BC, and late 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The 2nd millennium BC including the early 2nd millennium BC, early mid 2nd millennium BC, mid 2nd millennium BC, late mid 2nd millennium BC, and late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The early 1st millennium BC including the 10th century BC, 9th century BC, 8th century BC, 7th century BC, and 6th century BC can be connected.

Classical and medieval history

Early classical times including the 5th century BC, 4th century BC, 3rd century BC, 2nd century BC, and 1st century BC can be connected. Late classical times including the 1st century CE, 2nd century CE, 3rd century CE, 4th century CE, and 5th century CE can be connected. Early medieval times including the 6th century, 7th century, 8th century, 9th century, and 10th century can be connected. Late medieval times including the 11th century, 12th century, 13th century, 14th century, and 15th century can be connected.

Modern history

Notable developments occurred in the 16th century, including the early 16th century, early mid 16th century, mid 16th century, late mid 16th century, and late 16th century.

• 1543 Copernicus publishes a heliocentric (sun-centered) theory of astronomy
• c. 1586 - c. 1637 Galileo makes important discoveries in physics and astronomy.

With the widespread use of the telescope in the 17th century, more discoveries were made. I do not yet have many details of the early 17th century, early mid 17th century, mid 17th century, late mid 17th century, or late 17th century.

• c. 1604 - c. 1615 Kepler discovers and publishes his three laws of planetary motion.
• c. 1665 - c. 1704 Newton develops and publishes his theories of physics and astronomy. .

Developments in the 18th century can be considered. The early 18th century including the early 1700s, late 1700s, early 1710s, and late 1710s can be connected. The early mid 18th century, mid 18th century, late mid 18th century, and late 18th century following the advent of Newtonian physics and the use of telescopes are numerous.

In the 19th century, improvements in physics and technology led to even more understanding. The early 19th century, early mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century can be considered.

The growth of astronomy in the 20th century has been substantial. Developments in the early 20th century, early mid 20th century, mid 20th century, and late mid 20th century can be followed.

Late 20th century

Progress has continued in all fields of astronomy, including planetary astronomy, stellar astronomy, galactic atronomy, and cosmology. The early 1980s including 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, and 1985 can be connected. The late 1980s including 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, and 1990 can be connected. The early 1990s including 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995 can be connected. The late 1990s including 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, and 2000 can be connected.

Early 21st century

The early 2000s including 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 can also be considered.

The late 2000s including 2006 and 2007 can be connected. 2008 including the first quarter, second quarter, third quarter with July, August, and September, and fourth quarter including October and November can be connected. 2009 including the first quarter 2009, second quarter 2009, third quarter 2009, and fourth quarter 2009 can be connected. 2010 including the first quarter 2010, second quarter 2010, third quarter 2010, and fourth quarter 2010 can be connected.

The early 2010s can be connected. 2011 can be connected. The first quarter 2011 can be connected. January 2011 including 2011 week 1, 2011 week 2, 2011 week 3, 2011 week 4, 2011 week 5, and 2011 week 6 can be connected. February 2011 and March 2011 can be connected. The second quarter 2011 including April 2011, May 2011, and June 2011 can be connected.

Its future can be considered. The near future including next month, next quarter, and next year can be connected. The middle future and far future can be considered.

Sociology

Peoples of the world

Various peoples of the world have made various contributions to astronomy. African peoples can be connected. Particular nations including Russia, Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, and the Philippines can be connected. Western civilization including Brazil has contributed substantially to astronomy. Anglic peoples including those of the United States have contributed substantially. Asiatic peoples including those of Bangladesh have contributed to astronomy. South Asian peoples including those of India and Pakistan have contributed also. Oriental peoples including those of China have contributed substantially. Southeast Asian peoples such as those of Indonesia seem to have contributed only marginally. American Indian peoples including those of the United States and Brazil can also be connected.

Communities

Communities such as Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City will also be useful.

Social structure and change

Social change

Particular changes and movements

The agricultural revolution might be connected. The agrarian revolution including bronze age movements, early iron age movements, late iron age movements, and modernization can be connected. The industrial revolution including the early industrial revolution, middle industrial revolution and late industrial revolution can be connected. Social change factors including institutional change, cultural change, demographic change, and natural change can be connected. Social change processes including innovation, transmission, adaptation, and extinction can be connected.

Social types

Industrial societies can be connected. Agrarian societies can be connected. Horticultural societies can be connected. Hunting and gathering societies can be connected.

Social structure including institutional structure, cultural structure, and anthropological structure can be connected. Community and regional structure can be connected. Class structure can be connected.

Institutions

Religion

Particular religions including Abrahamic religion, Asiatic religion, secularism, and pagan religion can be connected. Religious organization including highly structured, fragmented, and loosely structured organization can be connected. Religious practice has some connection to astronomy. Religious beliefs can be connected to astronomy.

Government including law, government structure, and government activity is somewhat connected. Particular governments including international government, national government, and local government can be connected.

Economics including economic activities, industries, and economic systems is somewhat indirectly useful to astronomy. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and paticular schools will be useful. Families including marriage, kinship, parenting, and particular families appear to be only weakly influential.

Culture

Astronomy has behavioral components including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events. Conceptual culture is applicable. Language, graphics, and literature are all significant. Mathematics is vital. Applied science, particularly including measurement, is important. Philosophy was once important but is now less so. Astronomy has connections to material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstufs, clothing, transportation technology, communications technology, and other artifacts.

Anthropology

Particular groups are highly significant. Human geography including European geography, Asian geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography, is also somewhat useful in astronomy. Human ecology including effects of the environment on people, other life forms, and effects of people on the environment may be a little more useful. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion is not highly useful. Demography including population change, population size and structure, death, migration, and birth can be adapted to study of astronomers. Social foundations including social group behavior, social group types, social control, social interaction, and social presentation can be connected.

Personal studies

Astronomy is connected to particular astrornomers, some of whom can be found in biography list. Prominent astronomers include:

• Copernicus
• Galileo
• Newton

This is also connected to some findings of psychology including social psychology, personality, developmental psychology, mental disorders, behavior patterns, mind, and behavioral fundamentals can be considered. The capabilities and limitations of the human body as they apply to astronomical study, connected to form and appearance, life cycle, disease, and body functions and systems are useful.

Other sciences

Biology

Astronomy does not depend heavily on biology, since the presence of life has not been confirmed for any other celestial body besides the earth. All applications are therefore somewhat speculative. Biohistory, ecology, systematics, organism biology, cell biology and Molecular biology are at the opposite end of a relative size scale.

• Links to other sites:
• Yahoo Directory - Astronomy
• Wikipedia - Astronomy

Earth science

Geohistory may be indirectly useful to astronomy. Physical geography is useful chiefly as a guide and basis for analogy. Atmospheric science including atmospheric structure, meteorology, and climatology will be useful. Hydrospheric science including oceanography, glaciology, groundwater and freshwater is not quite unique to earth, but it is not nearly as important in astronomy as it is on earth. The geology of the earth serves as a departure and reference point for the studies of other bodies. Minerals, rocks, landforms, geologic processes, and interior geology all offer guides.

Chemistry

Chemical systems are important in astronomy. Organic chemistry is somewhat important, but astronomy relies more heavily on inorganic systems. Gaseous and plasma systems are highly important. Liquid systems are less so, but solid systems are useful.

All areas of chemical change are useful. nuclear reactions of fusion, transmutation, radioactive decay, and fission are useful. Chemical reactions including stoichiometry, mechanical arrangment, electronic rearrangement, reaction thermodynamics and chemical kinetics can be considered. Physical changes involving freezing, melting, sublimation, mixing, and separation are significant in astronomy.

The study of particular substances is highly important. Mixtures including heterogenous mixtures and solutions are imporant. Much of space consists of a highly dispersed gas. Compounds are also highly important. Various organic compounds have been identified, and numerous inorganic compounds have also been identified. Probably the single most abundant compound in the universe is water, although this is present mostly as the vapor. Elements can be considered. The table lists their estimated abundances in the solar system, which is used as a standard of comparison for the rest of astronomy.

Physics

Structure of matter is essential to astronomy. Exotic forms of matter are mostly known or hypothesized from astronomical observation. Bulk matter including plasma, gaseous, liquid, and solid states is also useful. Molecular physics including bonding, molecular structure, and molecular behavior is also valuable. Atomic physics including nuclear physics and electronic physics is also useful. Subatomic physics including particles and interactions is useful.

Quantum physics is useful. Relativity, including special relativity with the finite speed of light and general relativity is a significant tool in several areas of astronomy.

Electromagnetism is especially important. Optics including electromagnetic waves, geometric optics, physical optics, quantum optics, and the electromagnetism is the primary means of observation in astronomy. Magnetism including current elements, assemblies, magnetic field, force, flux, potential and magnetic properties of matter is also important in astronomy and astrophysics. Electric currents including current definition, EMF, resistance, DC Circuits, and AC circuits may also be useful. Electrostatics is mostly indirectly useful. Electric charge and charge distribution, electric forces, fields, flux, potential, capacitance and electrical properties of matter find some applications.

Thermodynamics is important in astronomy. Nonclassical thermodynamics and its systems, states, and processes are important in astronomy. Classical thermodynamics including systems, states, and processes, and Statistical mechanics including quantum statistical mechanics, relativistic statistical mechanics, and classical statistical mechanics are useful in examining some of the extreme conditions that occur in astronomy.

Mechanics is especially important.

Gravitation is useful. Nonrigid celestial mechanics will be applicale and rigid body celestial mechanics will be useful.Particle celestial mechanics using Newton's law of gravitation and Kepler's third law will be important. Surface gravitation is useful in planetary studies.

Nonrigid mechanics including wave mechanics, fluid mechanics, and deformable bodies is highly applicable to astronomy.

Rigid body mechanics is useful. Dynamic systems, static systems, and rotational dynamics also be applied. Rigid body description and motion involving extended bodies, position and orientiation, linear and rotational velocity, and linear and angular acceleration is useful.

Particle mechanics can be applied in various areas of astronomy. Particle systems involving simplified systems, particle interactions, and system properties, can also be applied. Energetics including power, mechanical energy, and work is useful. Kinetics including types and cases of force, concepts of force, momentum, and mass is also fundamental. Kinematics including cases and types of motion, acceleration, velocity, and position, can be examined. Astronomical bodies can often be treated as particles.