Science


All the other areas of knowledge are based on a knowledge and understanding of nature. Simple appreciation and description of the beauties of nature has often been called natural history. Closer examination and study was called natural philosophy. Even closer examination became physical and natural science. Nature is so vast and complex that it cannot be studied all at once. The five divisions I mention here are generally long-standing and well recognized.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience Physics Chemistry Astronomy Earth Science Biology
This does not include all the fields that are considered sciences. Study of the human body using methods of biology is also scientific, but this and psychology are treated in personal studies. Social sciences are generally considered in anthropology. Applied science, medicine, and technology are considered in the culture section. Political science and economics are considered under institutions.

All the other areas of knowledge are based on a knowledge and understanding of nature. Simple appreciation and description of the beauties of nature has often been called natural history. Closer examination and study was called natural philosophy. Even closer examination became physical and natural science.

Nature is so vast and complex that it cannot be studied all at once. The five divisions I mention here are generally long-standing and well recognized.

This does not include all the fields that are considered sciences. Study of the human body using methods of biology is also scientific, but this and psychology are treated in personal studies. Social sciences are generally considered in anthropology. Applied science, medicine, and technology are considered in the culture section. Political science and economics are considered under institutions.

Physics

Physics is the most basic and most general of the physical and natural sciences. It deals with the fundamental laws and regularities of nature. Mechanics is primarily the study of motion and its causes, if motion is also understood to be change of shape. It also includes the study of gravitation. Thermodynamics is the study of temperature and heat. Electromagnetism is the study of electricity, magnetism, and light. These three branches were developed earlier and are known as classical physics. Relativity, which combines mechanics and electromagnetism and deals with the behavior of space and time at high speeds and under strong gravity, is a branch of modern physics. Quantum physics, another branch of modern physics, deals with the laws and behavior of matter and radiation at extremely small scales. The structure of matter includes the study of subatomic physics, atoms and molecules, and the more familiar states of matter, solids, liquids, and gases, plus some postulated exotic states of matter.

Chemistry

Chemistry includes the study of particular substances and the changes and reactions that they undergo. These are combined into specific chemical systems.

Astronomy

Astronomy is less directly useful than physics or chemistry, although certain parts of it have profound effects on everything else. includes the study of bodies beyond the earth. The closest of realm, including the sun, moon, and planets, are the subject of planetary astronomy. The stars are the subject of stellar astronomy. Galactic astronomy includes the study of galaxies. Cosmology is the study of the observable universe.

Earth Science

Earth science includes studies of the non-living natural environment of the earth. It has principal divisions of geology, hydrospheric science, atmosheric science, physical geography, and earth history.

Biology

Biology, the study of life and living things, includes major divisions of molecular biology, cytology, organism biology, types of organisms, ecology, and biohistory.


Personal studies The human body has indirect connections to science. Body systems including, vital systems, reproductive systems, and control systems may have various connections. Structural systems including the skeletal system, muscular systems, and integumentary systems may be useful.	Links to related sites Yahoo- Scientists Open Directory - Science - Directories
Physiology including mobility and strength, vital functions, reproductive functions, and control functions are a bit more directly connected. Disease imposes certain limitations on scientific activity. The human life cycle imposes other restrictions on it. Gestation and infancy have little application to science. Childhood, adolesence, and adulthood have rather more. Senescence and death mark the end of scientific activity on an individual basis. Other limitations may be associated with overall appearance-related characteristics. Science depends at least indirectly on various elements of psychology. Behavioral elements such as sensation, perception, and motor activity are involved. Mind including emotion, cognition, volition, and consciousness is also connected. behavior patterns, mental illness, developmental psychology, personality, and social psychology can be connected. Biography is also important, although there are too many important contributors to list them all here. Several of them are listed here, in historical rather than rather than alphabetical order, as a guide to tracing the development of science. These are being connected to the history of science or to particular divisions within science, or sometimes both. Archimedes Columbus Copernicus Galileo Leeuwenhoek Newton Lavoisier Dalton Faraday Darwin Pasteur Maxwell Einstein
Anthropology Social foundations involves how scientists present themselves, how they interact with one another and nonscientists, social controls, social group types, and behavior of groups.	Links to related sites Yahoo - Science - Geography Scientific Organizations - Yahoo
Demography has limited applications. If entry into scientic professions is analogous to birth, migration can considered, and exit from the profession is analogous to death, populations of scientists, and changes in those popkations can be studied using demographic methods. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion do not seen to be highly connected to science. Human ecology including the impact of the environment on mankind, relations of men to other resources, and the impact of mankind on the environment, are of some use to science. Human geography has more to do with where scientists and people in general are concentrated and where they study. European geography, Asian geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography will be useful in this respect. Particular groups, especially particular groups of scientists have been and still are important in science. These include: Royal Society
Culture Not all aspects of material culture are useful in science.Most scientific instrumentation and equipment can be classed with industrial along with tools, fuels, chemical technology, machinery, utilities and other technology. Laboratories are part of building technology, and materials, building parts and furnishings, whole buildings, and outdoor structures can be considered. Foodstuffs including agricultural products, processed and preserved food, and prepared food are minimally and indirectly important, except perhaps in biology. Clothing and dress including fabrics, garments, and ardornments is also minimally important. (Most scientists outside cartoons do not wear lab coats). Transportation technology incluing vessels, land transportation, water transportation, air transportiation, and space transporation is also useful. Communication technology including written, graphic, and electronic communication is rather more important to science. Other artifacts such as toys, medicines, musical instruments, sculpture, and weapons do not seem to be as useful to science. Conceptual culture is fundamental to science. Language including languages of the world presents some unique features. Linguistics including phonetics, word forms, syntax, semantics, and linguistic change has some limited use. Writing is principally alphabetic, but sometimes syllabic and ideographic writing is also employed. Graphic arts such as drawing, painting, printmaking, cartography, photography, and computer graphics are also important to science.	Links to related sites Yahoo Directory - Science Yahoo Directory - Science - Complex Systems Yahoo Directory - Science - Energy Yahoo Directory - Science - Engineering Yahoo Directory - Science - Information Technology Yahoo Directory - Science - Nanotechnology Yahoo Directory - Science - Space Open Directory - Science Open Directory - Science - Chats and Forums Wikipedia - Natural sciences Google Directory - Science
Literature is also important. Oral Tradition has little direct applicability to science. Literary forms may be useful, but most scientific literature is a branch of nonfiction. Relatively few of the major works of literature mentioned here have substantial scientific content, but they have significantly influenced attitudes toward science. The Newton's Principia was one of the most influential, though much of it has been superseded. Science depends heavily on all areas of mathematics. Mathematical foundations are not often directly applied, but descriptions of objects, sets and collections of objects, mathematical structure, and mathematical logic have been used. Arithmetic is almost always essential. Numeric arithmetic and especially concrete arithmetic are needed, and variant arithmetics sometimes in specialzed areas. Algebra is also used heavily. Real and complex algebra is the most useful, but linear algebra and abstract algebra also find applications. Analysis including real and complex functions, infinite series, differential calculus, integral calculus, differential equations, and advanced analyis is used when physical quantities are changing and then need to be totaled. Geometry including Euclidean fundamentals, Euclidean plane geometry, Euclidean solid geogmetry, and non-Euclidean geometry is also useful in science. statistics are also useful in science. Applied science, involving questions of measurement, engineering, navigation, medical science, information science, accounting, and applied social science is important to the practice of pure natural science. Philosophy, which includes discussions of logic, metaphysics, aesthetics, ethics, epistemology, and philosophical schools and doctrines is also important in the study of science. c. 1689 Locke publishes his "Essay on Human Understanding", a major influence on science. Behavioral culture is also important in science. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling customs, dress and adornment, social interaction, and institutional customs seem to present illustrations rather than applications. Various occupations including food related, Building related, transportation related, communication-related, Industrial occupations and service related occupations also contribute to and motivate science. Scientific research is a highly skilled and specialized occupation. Recreation and entertainment including music, dance, and theater, games and sports are used principally in science education. The range of major cultural events such as disasters, meetings, holidays, and other events applicable to science is fairly restricted.
Institutions Families do not appear to be directly important to science. Marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families all have some influence. Education is considered much more important. Scientific research and discovery is an important area. The teaching of science is also important. Scientific cultural institutions such as museums, libraries, and venues are important in various fields of science. Science educational organization is an important areas. Particular schools including primary education, secondary education, and higher education will be useful. Economics is also significant in science. Economic activity including production, distribution, and consumption is connected to science. Industries including companies and agriculture, building industry, extraction and manufacturing, social and medical services, communication, transportation, and commercial and financial services have connections to science. Economic systems including firms, networks, economic system types, and economic system behavior can be connected.	Links to related sites Yahoo - Science education Yahoo - Scientific research Yahoo - Science Institutes Yahoo - Science - Museums and exhibits Yahoo - Science - Forensic Science Open Directory - Science - Educational Resources Open Directory - Science - Employment
Government has had various connections. Law including tribal law, Asian law, Western law, and international law sometimes influences it. Government structure including political parties and interest groups, Judicial systems, legislative systems, executive systems, heads of state, and forms of government sometime influences it. Government activities have often been thought to make a contribution. Administration, succession, and state relations can be considered. The social disruption caused by warfare probably impedes progress at least as much as it helps. Particular governments have been involved to greater or lesser extent. Local government is less directly useful than national government. International governments including traditional empires, colonial empires, and modern compacts can be considered. Religion Religion is often contrasted with science, but the relationship is not so simple as is often assumed. Religious belief, practice, and organization may be helpful. Various religious traditions nave different connections to science. Abrahamic religion, including Christianity, Islam, and Judaism is significant. Asiatic religion including Persian religion, Indian religion, and Oriental religion is also important. Secularism and pagan religion have had influence on science.
Sociology Social structure and change, communities, and peoples of the world can be applied to physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth science, and biology.
History The origins of science are lost in prehistory, but evidence for the study of nature can be found in prehistory. Science in its modern sense can be traced to the Greeks in the classical and medieval period and grew slowly. The majority of the findings of science have been discovered in modern times. The future has not yet been carefully examined.

Personal studies

The human body has indirect connections to science. Body systems including, vital systems, reproductive systems, and control systems may have various connections. Structural systems including the skeletal system, muscular systems, and integumentary systems may be useful.

Links to related sites

Physiology including mobility and strength, vital functions, reproductive functions, and control functions are a bit more directly connected. Disease imposes certain limitations on scientific activity. The human life cycle imposes other restrictions on it. Gestation and infancy have little application to science. Childhood, adolesence, and adulthood have rather more. Senescence and death mark the end of scientific activity on an individual basis. Other limitations may be associated with overall appearance-related characteristics.

Science depends at least indirectly on various elements of psychology. Behavioral elements such as sensation, perception, and motor activity are involved. Mind including emotion, cognition, volition, and consciousness is also connected. behavior patterns, mental illness, developmental psychology, personality, and social psychology can be connected.

Biography is also important, although there are too many important contributors to list them all here. Several of them are listed here, in historical rather than rather than alphabetical order, as a guide to tracing the development of science. These are being connected to the history of science or to particular divisions within science, or sometimes both.

Anthropology

Social foundations involves how scientists present themselves, how they interact with one another and nonscientists, social controls, social group types, and behavior of groups.

Links to related sites

Demography has limited applications. If entry into scientic professions is analogous to birth, migration can considered, and exit from the profession is analogous to death, populations of scientists, and changes in those popkations can be studied using demographic methods. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion do not seen to be highly connected to science. Human ecology including the impact of the environment on mankind, relations of men to other resources, and the impact of mankind on the environment, are of some use to science. Human geography has more to do with where scientists and people in general are concentrated and where they study. European geography, Asian geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography will be useful in this respect. Particular groups, especially particular groups of scientists have been and still are important in science. These include:

Royal Society

Culture

Not all aspects of material culture are useful in science.Most scientific instrumentation and equipment can be classed with industrial along with tools, fuels, chemical technology, machinery, utilities and other technology. Laboratories are part of building technology, and materials, building parts and furnishings, whole buildings, and outdoor structures can be considered. Foodstuffs including agricultural products, processed and preserved food, and prepared food are minimally and indirectly important, except perhaps in biology. Clothing and dress including fabrics, garments, and ardornments is also minimally important. (Most scientists outside cartoons do not wear lab coats). Transportation technology incluing vessels, land transportation, water transportation, air transportiation, and space transporation is also useful. Communication technology including written, graphic, and electronic communication is rather more important to science. Other artifacts such as toys, medicines, musical instruments, sculpture, and weapons do not seem to be as useful to science.

Conceptual culture is fundamental to science. Language including languages of the world presents some unique features. Linguistics including phonetics, word forms, syntax, semantics, and linguistic change has some limited use. Writing is principally alphabetic, but sometimes syllabic and ideographic writing is also employed.

Graphic arts such as drawing, painting, printmaking, cartography, photography, and computer graphics are also important to science.

Literature is also important. Oral Tradition has little direct applicability to science. Literary forms may be useful, but most scientific literature is a branch of nonfiction. Relatively few of the major works of literature mentioned here have substantial scientific content, but they have significantly influenced attitudes toward science. The Newton's Principia was one of the most influential, though much of it has been superseded.

Science depends heavily on all areas of mathematics. Mathematical foundations are not often directly applied, but descriptions of objects, sets and collections of objects, mathematical structure, and mathematical logic have been used. Arithmetic is almost always essential. Numeric arithmetic and especially concrete arithmetic are needed, and variant arithmetics sometimes in specialzed areas. Algebra is also used heavily. Real and complex algebra is the most useful, but linear algebra and abstract algebra also find applications. Analysis including real and complex functions, infinite series, differential calculus, integral calculus, differential equations, and advanced analyis is used when physical quantities are changing and then need to be totaled. Geometry including Euclidean fundamentals, Euclidean plane geometry, Euclidean solid geogmetry, and non-Euclidean geometry is also useful in science. statistics are also useful in science.

Applied science, involving questions of measurement, engineering, navigation, medical science, information science, accounting, and applied social science is important to the practice of pure natural science.

Philosophy, which includes discussions of logic, metaphysics, aesthetics, ethics, epistemology, and philosophical schools and doctrines is also important in the study of science.

c. 1689 Locke publishes his "Essay on Human Understanding", a major influence on science.

Behavioral culture is also important in science. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling customs, dress and adornment, social interaction, and institutional customs seem to present illustrations rather than applications. Various occupations including food related, Building related, transportation related, communication-related, Industrial occupations and service related occupations also contribute to and motivate science. Scientific research is a highly skilled and specialized occupation. Recreation and entertainment including music, dance, and theater, games and sports are used principally in science education. The range of major cultural events such as disasters, meetings, holidays, and other events applicable to science is fairly restricted.

Institutions

Families do not appear to be directly important to science. Marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families all have some influence.

Education is considered much more important. Scientific research and discovery is an important area. The teaching of science is also important. Scientific cultural institutions such as museums, libraries, and venues are important in various fields of science. Science educational organization is an important areas. Particular schools including primary education, secondary education, and higher education will be useful.

Economics is also significant in science. Economic activity including production, distribution, and consumption is connected to science. Industries including companies and agriculture, building industry, extraction and manufacturing, social and medical services, communication, transportation, and commercial and financial services have connections to science. Economic systems including firms, networks, economic system types, and economic system behavior can be connected.

Government has had various connections. Law including tribal law, Asian law, Western law, and international law sometimes influences it. Government structure including political parties and interest groups, Judicial systems, legislative systems, executive systems, heads of state, and forms of government sometime influences it. Government activities have often been thought to make a contribution. Administration, succession, and state relations can be considered. The social disruption caused by warfare probably impedes progress at least as much as it helps. Particular governments have been involved to greater or lesser extent. Local government is less directly useful than national government. International governments including traditional empires, colonial empires, and modern compacts can be considered.

Religion

Religion is often contrasted with science, but the relationship is not so simple as is often assumed. Religious belief, practice, and organization may be helpful. Various religious traditions nave different connections to science. Abrahamic religion, including Christianity, Islam, and Judaism is significant. Asiatic religion including Persian religion, Indian religion, and Oriental religion is also important. Secularism and pagan religion have had influence on science.

Sociology

Social structure and change, communities, and peoples of the world can be applied to physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth science, and biology.

History

The origins of science are lost in prehistory, but evidence for the study of nature can be found in prehistory. Science in its modern sense can be traced to the Greeks in the classical and medieval period and grew slowly. The majority of the findings of science have been discovered in modern times. The future has not yet been carefully examined.

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