Science


All the other areas of knowledge are based on a knowledge and understanding of nature. Simple appreciation and description of the beauties of nature has often been called natural history. Closer examination and study was called natural philosophy. Even closer examination became physical and natural science. Nature is so vast and complex that it cannot be studied all at once. The five divisions I mention here are generally long-standing and well recognized.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience Biology Earth Science Astronomy Chemistry Physics
This does not include all the fields that are considered sciences. Political science and economics are considered under institutions. Applied science, medicine, and technology are considered in the culture section. Social sciences are generally considered in either sociology or anthropology. Study of the human body using methods of biology is also scientific, but this and psychology are treated in personal studies.

All the other areas of knowledge are based on a knowledge and understanding of nature. Simple appreciation and description of the beauties of nature has often been called natural history. Closer examination and study was called natural philosophy. Even closer examination became physical and natural science.

Nature is so vast and complex that it cannot be studied all at once. The five divisions I mention here are generally long-standing and well recognized.

This does not include all the fields that are considered sciences. Political science and economics are considered under institutions. Applied science, medicine, and technology are considered in the culture section. Social sciences are generally considered in either sociology or anthropology. Study of the human body using methods of biology is also scientific, but this and psychology are treated in personal studies.

Biology

Biology, the study of life and living things, includes major divisions of biohistory, ecology, systematics or types of organisms, organism biology, Cell biology or cytology, and molecular biology .

Earth Science

Earth science includes studies of the non-living natural environment of the earth. It has principal divisions of earth history, physical geography, atmospheric science, hydrospheric science, and geology.

Astronomy

Astronomy is less directly useful than physics or chemistry, although certain parts of it have profound effects on everything else. includes the study of bodies beyond the earth. Cosmology is the study of the observable universe. Galactic astronomy includes the study of galaxies. The stars are the subject of stellar astronomy. The closest realm, including the sun, moon, and planets, are the subject of planetary astronomy.

Chemistry

Chemistry includes the study of specific chemical systems, the changes and reactions that take place in them, and the particular substances that are involved.

Physics

Physics is the most basic and most general of the physical and natural sciences. It deals with the fundamental laws and regularities of nature. The structure of matter includes the study of subatomic physics, atoms and molecules, and the more familiar states of matter, solids, liquids, and gases, plus some postulated exotic states of matter. Quantum physics, another branch of modern physics, deals with the laws and behavior of matter and radiation at extremely small scales. Relativity, which combines mechanics and electromagnetism and deals with the behavior of space and time at high speeds and under strong gravity, is a branch of modern physics. There are three branches were developed earlier and are known as classical physics. Electromagnetism is the study of electricity, magnetism, and light. Thermodynamics is the study of temperature and heat. Mechanics is primarily the study of motion and its causes, if motion is also understood to be change of shape. It also includes the study of gravitation.


History The origins of science are lost in prehistory, but evidence for the study of nature can be found in prehistory. Science in its modern sense can be traced to the Greeks in the classical and medieval period and grew slowly. The majority of the findings of science have been discovered in modern times. The future has not yet been carefully examined.
Sociology Various peoples of the world have differing scientific establishments and traditions. Communities and social structure and change can be applied to biology, earth science, astronomy, chemistry, and physics.
Institutions Religion, government, economics, education, and families can be applied to the study of biology, earth science, astronomy, chemistry, and physics.
Culture Behavioral culture The range of major cultural events such as holidays, gatherings, disasters, and miscellaneous events applicable to science is fairly restricted. Recreation and entertainment including sports, games, theater, dance, and music are used principally in science education. Various occupations are connected. Service related occupations can be connected. Institutional services are prominent. Scientific research is a highly skilled and specialized occupation within this group. Commercial and financial services, sports recreation and entertainment, and social and medical services are significant. Industrial occupations, communication related occupations, transportation-related occupations, Building-related occupations, and food related occupations also contribute to and motivate science. Customs including institutional customs, social interaction, dress and adornment, living and dwelling customs, and vital customs seem to present illustrations rather than applications.	Links to related sites Yahoo Directory - Science Yahoo Directory - Science - Complex Systems Yahoo Directory - Science - Energy Yahoo Directory - Science - Engineering Yahoo Directory - Science - Information Technology Yahoo Directory - Science - Nanotechnology Yahoo Directory - Science - Space Open Directory - Science Open Directory - Science - Chats and Forums Wikipedia - Natural sciences Google Directory - Science
Conceptual culture Conceptual culture is fundamental to science. Philosophy, which includes discussions of philosophical schools and doctrines, special topics, ethics, aesthetics, metaphysics, epistemology, and logic is also important in the study of science. c. 1689 Locke publishes his "Essay on Human Understanding", a major influence on science. Applied science, involving questions of applied social science, accounting, information science, medical science, navigation, engineering, and measurement is important to the practice of pure natural science. Science depends heavily on all areas of mathematics.Statistics is useful in science. Geometry including Euclidean fundamentals, Euclidean plane geometry, Euclidean solid geometry, and non-Euclidean geometry is also useful in science. Analysis including real and complex functions, infinite series, differential calculus, integral calculus, differential equations, and advanced analyis is used when physical quantities are changing and then need to be totaled. Algebra is also used heavily. Real and complex algebra is the most useful, but linear algebra and abstract algebra also find applications. Arithmetic is almost always essential. Numeric arithmetic and especially concrete arithmetic are needed, and variant arithmetics sometimes in specialzed areas. Mathematical foundations are not often directly applied, but descriptions of objects, sets and collections of objects, mathematical structure, and mathematical logic have been used. Literature is also important. Relatively few of the major works of literature mentioned here have substantial scientific content, but they have significantly influenced attitudes toward science. The Newton's Principia was one of the most influential, though much of it has been superseded. Literary types and genres are useful. most scientific literature is a branch of nonfiction. Literary forms may be useful. Oral Tradition has little direct applicability to science. Graphic arts such as computer graphics, photography, cartography, printmaking, painting, and drawing are also important to science. Language presents some unique features. Languages of the world are significant. Indo-european languages are used most heavily, but Afro-asiatic languages, Asian languages, African languages, and American Indian languages are also used. Writing can be connected. but sometimes ideographic and syllabic writing are employed. alphabetic writing is principally employed. Linguistics including linguistic change, semantics, syntax, word forms, and phonetics has some limited use. Material culture Not all areas of material culture are useful in science. Other artifacts such as toys, medicines, musical instruments, sculpture, and weapons do not seem to be as useful to science. Communication technology including written, graphic, and electronic communication is rather more important to science. Transportation technology incluing vessels, land transportation, water transportation, air transportiation, and space transporation is also useful. Clothing and dress including fabrics, garments, and ardornments is also minimally important. (Most scientists outside cartoons do not wear lab coats). Foodstuffs including agricultural products, processed and preserved food, and prepared food are minimally and indirectly important, except perhaps in biology. Laboratories are part of building technology, and materials, building parts and furnishings, whole buildings, and outdoor structures can be considered. Most scientific instrumentation and equipment can be classed with industrial along with tools, fuels, chemical technology, machinery, utilities and other technology.
Anthropology Particular groups Particular groups of scientists have been and still are important in science. These include: Royal Society	Links to related sites Yahoo - Science - Geography Scientific Organizations - Yahoo
Human geography HUman geography has to do with where scientists and people in general are concentrated and where they study. European geography including Balkan geography, Italian geography, Iberian geography, Eastern European geography, Central European geography, Northwest European geography, Island european geography, and Scandinavian geography can be connected. Asian geography including Southwest Asian geography, South Asian geography, Southeast Asian geography, East Asian geography, Central Asian geography, and North Asian geography geography can be connected. African geography including North African geography, East African geography, West African geography, North Central African geography, South Central African geography, and Southern African geography can be connected. North American geography including Northern North American geography,Middle North American geography, and Southern North American geography can be connected. South American geography can be connected. Oceanic geography can be connected. Human ecology Human effects on the environment can be connected. Relations with other life can be connected. Environmental effects on people can be connected. Physical anthropology Human dispersion might be connected. Racial variation might be connected. Human origins might be connected. Demography Demography has limited application, but science can be studied using demographic methods if population change among scientists can be considered. Population size and structure can be considered. Morbidity and mortality and analogues can be connected. Migration can be connected. Fertility and birth Social foundations Social group behavior can be connected. Social group Social group types can be connected. Social control can be connected. Social interaction can be connected. Social presentation can be copnnected.
Personal studies Biography Biography is also important, although there are too many important contributors to list them all here. Several of them are listed here, in historical rather than rather than alphabetical order, as a guide to tracing the development of science. These are being connected to the history of science or to particular divisions within science, or sometimes both.	Links to related sites Yahoo- Scientists Open Directory - Science - Directories
Archimedes Columbus Copernicus Galileo Leeuwenhoek Newton Lavoisier Dalton Faraday Darwin Pasteur Maxwell Einstein Psychology Science depends at least indirectly on various elements of psychology. Social psychology, personality, mental illness, developmental psychology, and behavior patterns can be connected. Mind including emotion, cognition, volition, and consciousness is also connected. Behavioral elements such as sensation, perception, and motor activity are involved. Human body The human body has indirect connections to science. Some limitations may be associated with overall appearance-related characteristics. The human life cycle imposes other restrictions on it. Gestation and infancy have little application to science. Childhood, adolesence, and adulthood have rather more. Senescence and death mark the end of scientific activity on an individual basis. Disease imposes certain limitations on scientific activity. Physiology including control functions, reproductive functions, vital functions, and mobility and strength are somewhat connected. Body systems including control systems, reproductive systems, and vital systems, may have various connections. Structural systems including the skeletal system, muscular systems, and integumentary systems may be useful.

History

The origins of science are lost in prehistory, but evidence for the study of nature can be found in prehistory. Science in its modern sense can be traced to the Greeks in the classical and medieval period and grew slowly. The majority of the findings of science have been discovered in modern times. The future has not yet been carefully examined.

Sociology

Various peoples of the world have differing scientific establishments and traditions. Communities and social structure and change can be applied to biology, earth science, astronomy, chemistry, and physics.

Institutions

Religion, government, economics, education, and families can be applied to the study of biology, earth science, astronomy, chemistry, and physics.

Culture

Behavioral culture

The range of major cultural events such as holidays, gatherings, disasters, and miscellaneous events applicable to science is fairly restricted.

Recreation and entertainment including sports, games, theater, dance, and music are used principally in science education.

Various occupations are connected. Service related occupations can be connected. Institutional services are prominent. Scientific research is a highly skilled and specialized occupation within this group. Commercial and financial services, sports recreation and entertainment, and social and medical services are significant. Industrial occupations, communication related occupations, transportation-related occupations, Building-related occupations, and food related occupations also contribute to and motivate science.

Customs including institutional customs, social interaction, dress and adornment, living and dwelling customs, and vital customs seem to present illustrations rather than applications.

Conceptual culture

Conceptual culture is fundamental to science.

Philosophy, which includes discussions of philosophical schools and doctrines, special topics, ethics, aesthetics, metaphysics, epistemology, and logic is also important in the study of science.

c. 1689 Locke publishes his "Essay on Human Understanding", a major influence on science.

Applied science, involving questions of applied social science, accounting, information science, medical science, navigation, engineering, and measurement is important to the practice of pure natural science.

Science depends heavily on all areas of mathematics.Statistics is useful in science. Geometry including Euclidean fundamentals, Euclidean plane geometry, Euclidean solid geometry, and non-Euclidean geometry is also useful in science. Analysis including real and complex functions, infinite series, differential calculus, integral calculus, differential equations, and advanced analyis is used when physical quantities are changing and then need to be totaled. Algebra is also used heavily. Real and complex algebra is the most useful, but linear algebra and abstract algebra also find applications. Arithmetic is almost always essential. Numeric arithmetic and especially concrete arithmetic are needed, and variant arithmetics sometimes in specialzed areas. Mathematical foundations are not often directly applied, but descriptions of objects, sets and collections of objects, mathematical structure, and mathematical logic have been used.

Literature is also important. Relatively few of the major works of literature mentioned here have substantial scientific content, but they have significantly influenced attitudes toward science. The Newton's Principia was one of the most influential, though much of it has been superseded. Literary types and genres are useful. most scientific literature is a branch of nonfiction. Literary forms may be useful. Oral Tradition has little direct applicability to science.

Graphic arts such as computer graphics, photography, cartography, printmaking, painting, and drawing are also important to science.

Language presents some unique features. Languages of the world are significant. Indo-european languages are used most heavily, but Afro-asiatic languages, Asian languages, African languages, and American Indian languages are also used. Writing can be connected. but sometimes ideographic and syllabic writing are employed. alphabetic writing is principally employed. Linguistics including linguistic change, semantics, syntax, word forms, and phonetics has some limited use.

Material culture

Not all areas of material culture are useful in science. Other artifacts such as toys, medicines, musical instruments, sculpture, and weapons do not seem to be as useful to science. Communication technology including written, graphic, and electronic communication is rather more important to science. Transportation technology incluing vessels, land transportation, water transportation, air transportiation, and space transporation is also useful. Clothing and dress including fabrics, garments, and ardornments is also minimally important. (Most scientists outside cartoons do not wear lab coats). Foodstuffs including agricultural products, processed and preserved food, and prepared food are minimally and indirectly important, except perhaps in biology. Laboratories are part of building technology, and materials, building parts and furnishings, whole buildings, and outdoor structures can be considered. Most scientific instrumentation and equipment can be classed with industrial along with tools, fuels, chemical technology, machinery, utilities and other technology.

Anthropology

Particular groups

Particular groups of scientists have been and still are important in science. These include:

Royal Society

Links to related sites

Human geography

HUman geography has to do with where scientists and people in general are concentrated and where they study.

European geography including Balkan geography, Italian geography, Iberian geography, Eastern European geography, Central European geography, Northwest European geography, Island european geography, and Scandinavian geography can be connected. Asian geography including Southwest Asian geography, South Asian geography, Southeast Asian geography, East Asian geography, Central Asian geography, and North Asian geography geography can be connected. African geography including North African geography, East African geography, West African geography, North Central African geography, South Central African geography, and Southern African geography can be connected. North American geography including Northern North American geography,Middle North American geography, and Southern North American geography can be connected. South American geography can be connected. Oceanic geography can be connected.

Human ecology

Human effects on the environment can be connected. Relations with other life can be connected. Environmental effects on people can be connected.

Physical anthropology

Human dispersion might be connected. Racial variation might be connected. Human origins might be connected.

Demography

Demography has limited application, but science can be studied using demographic methods if population change among scientists can be considered. Population size and structure can be considered. Morbidity and mortality and analogues can be connected. Migration can be connected. Fertility and birth

Social foundations

Social group behavior can be connected. Social group Social group types can be connected. Social control can be connected. Social interaction can be connected. Social presentation can be copnnected.

Personal studies

Biography

Biography is also important, although there are too many important contributors to list them all here. Several of them are listed here, in historical rather than rather than alphabetical order, as a guide to tracing the development of science. These are being connected to the history of science or to particular divisions within science, or sometimes both.

Links to related sites

Psychology

Science depends at least indirectly on various elements of psychology. Social psychology, personality, mental illness, developmental psychology, and behavior patterns can be connected. Mind including emotion, cognition, volition, and consciousness is also connected. Behavioral elements such as sensation, perception, and motor activity are involved.

Human body

The human body has indirect connections to science. Some limitations may be associated with overall appearance-related characteristics. The human life cycle imposes other restrictions on it. Gestation and infancy have little application to science. Childhood, adolesence, and adulthood have rather more. Senescence and death mark the end of scientific activity on an individual basis. Disease imposes certain limitations on scientific activity. Physiology including control functions, reproductive functions, vital functions, and mobility and strength are somewhat connected. Body systems including control systems, reproductive systems, and vital systems, may have various connections. Structural systems including the skeletal system, muscular systems, and integumentary systems may be useful.

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