Modern History


Although historians often date modern history from the fall of Constantinople or the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453 or the voyage of Columbus in 1492, on this site it begins with the arbitrary date of 1501 CE. It is divided into the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Events of the 21st century are included with the 20th. This period is notable for the increasing worldwide dominance of Western or European civilization. Although the political trend was reversed during the 20th century, its economic and cultural influence continues. This period is better documented and known to historians and non-historians, since it includes the activities and concerns of living individuals. The end of this period is not fixed, and new events are added every day, (though not necessarily to this site.)	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience History 16th Century 17th Century 18th Century 19th Century 20th Century

Although historians often date modern history from the fall of Constantinople or the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453 or the voyage of Columbus in 1492, on this site it begins with the arbitrary date of 1501 CE. It is divided into the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Events of the 21st century are included with the 20th. This period is notable for the increasing worldwide dominance of Western or European civilization. Although the political trend was reversed during the 20th century, its economic and cultural influence continues.

This period is better documented and known to historians and non-historians, since it includes the activities and concerns of living individuals. The end of this period is not fixed, and new events are added every day, (though not necessarily to this site.)

History

16th Century

In the early 16th century, the Portuguese followed up on their discovery of a sea route to India, while the Spanish began a conquest of the Aztec empire of Mexico. Luther's criticism of the Roman Catholic Church commenced the Reformation. In the early mid 16th century, the Portuguese continued their incursions into India, while the Spanish conquered the Inca empire of South America. In the mid 16th century, Copernicus published a heliocentric theory of astronomy, which is considered to inaugurate the scientific or Copernican revolution. In the late-mid 16th century, the English and French began to compete with the Spanish in the New World. In the late 16th century, Shakespeare began writing his plays.

17th Century

In the early 17th century, there was significant advance in scientific methods and findings. The first permanent English settlements in North America were founded. In the early-mid 17th century, the thirty years war between Catholics and Protestants devastated Germany. The North American colonies flourished. In the mid 17th century, the English Civil War interrupted the monarchy. In the late-mid 17th century, Newton developed his theories of mechanics and gravitation. In the late 17th century, Peter the Great began a period of significant Russian expansion.

18th Century

The early 18th century is noted for the widespread publication and adoption of Newtonian mechanics in Europe. Russia began to expand and attempt to catch up with advances of the previous few centuries in western Europe. In the early-mid 18th century, various philosophers propounded rational, secular philosophies in place of uncritical acceptance of medieval biblically based belief in many areas, and significant advances were made in mathematics. In the mid-18th century, the British and French struggled for control of North America. In the late-mid 18th century, the British defeated the French in North America, but increasing tensions between England and its American colonies resulted in the declaration of American independence. In the late 18th century, the United States originated its constitution, which proved to be a major development of political theory and practice. The French revolution initiated a period of major change in Europe.

19th Century

The early 19th century is noted for the Napoleonic wars. France defeated Spain and was in turn defeated by Britain and Germany, and the British became the preeminent colonial power in the world. The early mid 19th century is noted for Latin American independence, industrialization, and the rapid growth of railroads. The middle 19th century is noted for social unrest in Europe, partially in consequence of the spread of education and liberal ideas, but is also noted for the advent of socialism. The late mid 19th century is noted for the American civil war and subsequent transcontinental development, as well as for increased political domination of Asia by the British, and the beginnings of practical control of electromagnetism. The late 19th century included European colonization of Africa, and increasing prominence of America as numerous inventions and other developments increasingly came from there. In the Orient, China's government appeared increasingly weak, and the Japanese were well in the process of industrialization.

20th Century

The early 20th century is noted for the Great War (World War I) which ended this period. The Russian, Austria-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires came to an end and were replaced by modernized governments. The early mid 20th century is known for the rise of militant nationalist governments, while aircraft, diesel engines, motor vehicles, radio and television, and applications of new medical knowledge began to work vast cultural changes in western society. The period is also noted for a worldwide economic depression and the beginnings of World War II. The mid 20th century is noted for world War II, during which the US and the USSR became "superpowers" and other western European powers, weakened by the war, released most of Asia from direct political rule. The late mid 20th century is noted for the decolonization of Africa as well. The various struggles of decolonization were accompanied by efforts of the superpowers to assert their own influence and counter that of the other in these areas, in what was called the "Cold War". Neither was wholly successful, and the struggle cost both of them prestige and influence, while internal divisions and conflicts became increasingly apparent in both. This trend continued during the late 20th century, until the USSR broke up into multiple smaller states and lost control over eastern Europe and islamic central Asia. The United States maintained a strong but indirect political, economic, and cultural influence on the rest of the world, amid signs of a decline from post WW II heights. In the early 21st century, a terrorist attack by Islamic militants led to a long-lasting war in Iraq and Afghanistan. China began to develop as a significant major power.


Other history Earlier periods of history including prehistory, antiquity, and classical and medieval history are often useful in examining events of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, and 19th century. The future may also be considered in examining modern history. Prehistory Events of prehistory may give useful background information to the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. Early prehistory Early prehistory may give useful backgrouns information for the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. Pliocene can be connected. The early Pleistocene can be connected. The early mid Pleistocene can be connected. The late mid Pleistocene can be connected. The late Pleistocene can be connected. Middle prehistory Middle prehistory may give useful background to events of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. The 5th decamillennium BP can be connected. The 4th decamillennium BP can be connected. The 3rd decamillennium BP can be connected. The 2nd decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory Late prehistory may give useful background to events of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century.	Links to other sites: History Wiz: Modern History The 16th to 19th centuries (Frank Smitha) Infoplease: 1000 to 1899 World History Wikipedia - Modern History Modern History (1776 - 1945) British Academy Portal: Modern History to c. 1800 British Academy Portal: Modern history from c. 1800 Internet Modern History Sourcebook Early modern resources Modern World History Resources Modern History: Useful links (Oxford University) Modern History (Organized by topic) Lectures on Early Modern European History
The early 8th millennium BC can be connected. The late 8th millennium BC can be connected. The early 7th millennium BC can be connected. The late 7th millennium BC can be connected. The early 6th millennium BC can be connected. The late 6th millennium BC can be connected. Antiquity The development of ancient civilization has been an important and sometimes controversial subject of discussion in the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. 5th millennium BC There are possible connections to the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. The early 5th millennium BC can be connected. The early mid 5th millennium BC can be connected. The mid 5th millennium BC can be connected. The late mid 5th millennium BC can be connected. The late 5th millennium BC can be connected. 4th millennium BC There are possible connections to the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. The early 4th millennium BC can be connected. The early mid 4th millennium BC can be connected. The mid 4th millennium BC can be connected. The late mid 4th millennium BC can be connected. The late 4th millennium BC can be connected. 3rd millennium BC This period has been of interest in the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. The early 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The early mid 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The mid 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The late mid 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The late 3rd millennium BC can be connected. 2nd millennium BC This period has been of interest in the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century because of its connections to events of the Bible. The early 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The early mid 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The mid 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The late mid 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. Early 1st millennium BC This period has been of interest in the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century because of its connections to Biblical and classical history. The 10th century BC can be connected. The 9th century BC can be connected. The 8th century BC can be connected. The 7th century BC can be connected. The 6th century BC can be connected. Classical and medieval history The classical and medieval history that preceded the modern era is most immediately connected to the 16th century, but remains influential in the 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. This has most often been concerned with the development of Western Civilization. The development of Asiatic and other peoples is less well known and has not been as well studied. Early classical history The chief developments of early classical history that are of interest in the 16th, 17th, 17th, 19th, and 20th centuries include the development of Greek culture and the growth of the Roman Republic and empire. The 5th century BC can be connected. The 4th century BC can be connected. The 3rd century BC can be connected. The 2nd century BC can be connected. The 1st century BC can be connected. Late classical history The chief developments of late classical history that are of interest in the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries include the late Roman empire and the rise of Christianity. The 1st century CE can be connected. The 2nd century CE can be connected. The 3rd century CE can be connected. The 4th century CE can be connected. The 5th century CE can be connected. Early medieval history The chief developments of early medieval history that are of interest in the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries include the early Feudal era of Europe, the Byzantine empire, and the rise of Islam. The 6th century can be connected. The 7th century can be connected. The 8th century can be connected. The 9th century can be connected. The 10th century can be connected. Late medieval history The chief developments of Late medieval history that are of interest in the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries include the development of the major nations of Western Civilization, the Crusades, and the Islamic golden era and rise of the Ottoman empire. The Mongols are also noteworthy. The 11th century can be connected. The 12th century can be connected. The 13th century has been examined in the 20th century and is notable for the Mongol invasions. The 14th century has been examined in the 20th century, and is chiefly remembered for the Black Death. The 15th century has been examined in the 20th century, and is chiefly known for what is called the Renaissance. Future Knowledge of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, and 19th century may benefit from studies to be conducted in the future. The 20th century is most closely connected. Near future Modern history can be projected somewhat into the near future. So far, only the 20th century is being considered. Next month including June 2011 and July 2011 might be connected. Next quarter (February 2010 and March 2010) and next year including the second quarter 2010, third quarter 2010, and fourth quarter 2010 might also be connected. Middle future The 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century can be connected. The next 5 years including 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017 might be connected. The next 20 years including the late 2010s, early 2020s, late 2020s, early 2030s, and late 2030s can be considered. The next 100 years including the mid 21st century, late mid 21st century, and late 21st century can be connected. The next 5 centuries including the 22nd century, 23rd century, 24th century, and 25th century can be connected. Far future So far, this is only being applied to the 20th century. The far future including the next 2 millennia, next 10,000 years, next 50,000 year, next 200,000 years, next million years, and beyond the next miliion years is not immediately useful. Sociology As with history in general, the examination of peoples of the world, communities, and social structure and change gives weight and substance to examination of events of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. Institutions As with history in general, the examination of religion, government, economics, education, and families is vital to modern history and the examination of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. Culture As with history in general, the examination of behavioral, conceptual, and material culture is vital to modern history and the examination of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. Anthropology Particular groups, human geography, human ecology, physical anthropolody, demography, and social foundations can be applied to the examination of modern history and the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. Personal studies Biography, psychology, and the human body can be applied to examination of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. Science As with history in general, natural science is for the most part indirectly useful in modern history. This can be applied to the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century and 20th century.

Other history

Earlier periods of history including prehistory, antiquity, and classical and medieval history are often useful in examining events of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, and 19th century. The future may also be considered in examining modern history.

Prehistory

Events of prehistory may give useful background information to the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century.

Early prehistory

Early prehistory may give useful backgrouns information for the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century.

Pliocene can be connected. The early Pleistocene can be connected. The early mid Pleistocene can be connected. The late mid Pleistocene can be connected. The late Pleistocene can be connected.

Middle prehistory

Middle prehistory may give useful background to events of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century.

The 5th decamillennium BP can be connected. The 4th decamillennium BP can be connected. The 3rd decamillennium BP can be connected. The 2nd decamillennium BP can be connected.

Late prehistory

Late prehistory may give useful background to events of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century.

Links to other sites:
History Wiz: Modern History
The 16th to 19th centuries (Frank Smitha)
Infoplease: 1000 to 1899 World History
Wikipedia - Modern History
Modern History (1776 - 1945)
British Academy Portal: Modern History to c. 1800
British Academy Portal: Modern history from c. 1800
Internet Modern History Sourcebook
Early modern resources
Modern World History Resources
Modern History: Useful links (Oxford University)
Modern History (Organized by topic)
Lectures on Early Modern European History

The early 8th millennium BC can be connected. The late 8th millennium BC can be connected. The early 7th millennium BC can be connected. The late 7th millennium BC can be connected. The early 6th millennium BC can be connected. The late 6th millennium BC can be connected.

Antiquity

The development of ancient civilization has been an important and sometimes controversial subject of discussion in the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century.

5th millennium BC

There are possible connections to the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century.

The early 5th millennium BC can be connected. The early mid 5th millennium BC can be connected. The mid 5th millennium BC can be connected. The late mid 5th millennium BC can be connected. The late 5th millennium BC can be connected.

4th millennium BC

There are possible connections to the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century.

The early 4th millennium BC can be connected. The early mid 4th millennium BC can be connected. The mid 4th millennium BC can be connected. The late mid 4th millennium BC can be connected. The late 4th millennium BC can be connected.

3rd millennium BC

This period has been of interest in the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century.

The early 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The early mid 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The mid 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The late mid 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The late 3rd millennium BC can be connected.

2nd millennium BC

This period has been of interest in the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century because of its connections to events of the Bible.

The early 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The early mid 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The mid 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The late mid 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The late 2nd millennium BC can be connected.

Early 1st millennium BC

This period has been of interest in the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century because of its connections to Biblical and classical history.

The 10th century BC can be connected. The 9th century BC can be connected. The 8th century BC can be connected. The 7th century BC can be connected. The 6th century BC can be connected.

Classical and medieval history

The classical and medieval history that preceded the modern era is most immediately connected to the 16th century, but remains influential in the 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century. This has most often been concerned with the development of Western Civilization. The development of Asiatic and other peoples is less well known and has not been as well studied.

Early classical history

The chief developments of early classical history that are of interest in the 16th, 17th, 17th, 19th, and 20th centuries include the development of Greek culture and the growth of the Roman Republic and empire.

The 5th century BC can be connected. The 4th century BC can be connected. The 3rd century BC can be connected. The 2nd century BC can be connected. The 1st century BC can be connected.

Late classical history

The chief developments of late classical history that are of interest in the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries include the late Roman empire and the rise of Christianity.

The 1st century CE can be connected. The 2nd century CE can be connected. The 3rd century CE can be connected. The 4th century CE can be connected. The 5th century CE can be connected.

Early medieval history

The chief developments of early medieval history that are of interest in the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries include the early Feudal era of Europe, the Byzantine empire, and the rise of Islam.

The 6th century can be connected. The 7th century can be connected. The 8th century can be connected. The 9th century can be connected. The 10th century can be connected.

Late medieval history

The chief developments of Late medieval history that are of interest in the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries include the development of the major nations of Western Civilization, the Crusades, and the Islamic golden era and rise of the Ottoman empire. The Mongols are also noteworthy.

The 11th century can be connected. The 12th century can be connected. The 13th century has been examined in the 20th century and is notable for the Mongol invasions. The 14th century has been examined in the 20th century, and is chiefly remembered for the Black Death. The 15th century has been examined in the 20th century, and is chiefly known for what is called the Renaissance.

Future

Knowledge of the 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, and 19th century may benefit from studies to be conducted in the future. The 20th century is most closely connected.

Near future

Modern history can be projected somewhat into the near future. So far, only the 20th century is being considered.

Next month including June 2011 and July 2011 might be connected. Next quarter (February 2010 and March 2010) and next year including the second quarter 2010, third quarter 2010, and fourth quarter 2010 might also be connected.

Middle future

The 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century can be connected.

The next 5 years including 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017 might be connected. The next 20 years including the late 2010s, early 2020s, late 2020s, early 2030s, and late 2030s can be considered. The next 100 years including the mid 21st century, late mid 21st century, and late 21st century can be connected. The next 5 centuries including the 22nd century, 23rd century, 24th century, and 25th century can be connected.

Far future

So far, this is only being applied to the 20th century.

The far future including the next 2 millennia, next 10,000 years, next 50,000 year, next 200,000 years, next million years, and beyond the next miliion years is not immediately useful.