Modern history


Although historians often date modern history from the fall of Constantinople or the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453 or the voyage of Columbus in 1492, on this site it begins with the arbitrary date of 1501 CE. It is divided into the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Events of the 21st century are included with the 20th. This period is notable for the increasing worldwide dominance of Western or European civilization. Although the political trend was reversed during the 20th century, its economic and cultural influence continues. This period is better documented and known to historians and non-historians, since it includes the activities and concerns of living individuals. The end of this period is not fixed, and new events are added every day, (though not necessarily to this site.)	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience History 16th Century 17th Century 18th Century 19th Century 20th Century

Although historians often date modern history from the fall of Constantinople or the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453 or the voyage of Columbus in 1492, on this site it begins with the arbitrary date of 1501 CE. It is divided into the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Events of the 21st century are included with the 20th. This period is notable for the increasing worldwide dominance of Western or European civilization. Although the political trend was reversed during the 20th century, its economic and cultural influence continues.

This period is better documented and known to historians and non-historians, since it includes the activities and concerns of living individuals. The end of this period is not fixed, and new events are added every day, (though not necessarily to this site.)

History

16th Century

In the early 16th century, the Portuguese followed up on their discovery of a sea route to India, while the Spanish began a conquest of the Aztec empire of Mexico. Luther's criticism of the Roman Catholic Church commenced the Reformation. In the early mid 16th century, the Portuguese continued their incursions into India, while the Spanish conquered the Inca empire of South America. In the mid 16th century, Copernicus published a heliocentric theory of astronomy, which is considered to inaugurate the scientific or Copernican revolution. In the late-mid 16th century, the English and French began to compete with the Spanish in the New World. In the late 16th century, Shakespeare began writing his plays.

17th Century

In the early 17th century, there was significant advance in scientific methods and findings. The first permanent English settlements in North America were founded. In the early-mid 17th century, the thirty years war between Catholics and Protestants devastated Germany. The North American colonies flourished. In the mid 17th century, the English Civil War interrupted the monarchy. In the late-mid 17th century, Newton developed his theories of mechanics and gravitation. In the late 17th century, Peter the Great began a period of significant Russian expansion.

18th Century

The early 18th century is noted for the widespread publication and adoption of Newtonian mechanics in Europe. Russia began to expand and attempt to catch up with advances of the previous few centuries in western Europe. In the early-mid 18th century, various philosophers propounded rational, secular philosophies in place of uncritical acceptance of medieval biblically based belief in many areas, and significant advances were made in mathematics. In the mid-18th century, the British and French struggled for control of North America. In the late-mid 18th century, the British defeated the French in North America, but increasing tensions between England and its American colonies resulted in the declaration of American independence. In the late 18th century, the United States originated its constitution, which proved to be a major development of political theory and practice. The French revolution initiated a period of major change in Europe.

19th Century

The early 19th century is noted for the Napoleonic wars. France defeated Spain and was in turn defeated by Britain and Germany, and the British became the preeminent colonial power in the world. The early middle 19th century is noted for Latin American independence, industrialization, and the rapid growth of railroads. The middle 19th century is noted for social unrest in Europe, partially in consequence of the spread of eduction and liberal ideas, but is also noted for the advent of socialism. The late mid 19th century is noted for the American civil war and subsequent transcontinental development, as well as for increased political domination of Asia by the British, and the beginnings of practical control of electromagnetism. The late 19th century included European colonization of Africa, and increasing prominence of America as numerous inventions and other developments increasingly came from there. In the Orient, China's government appeared increasingly weak, and the Japanese were well in the process of industrialization.

20th Century

The early 20th century is noted for the Great War (World War I) which ended this period. The Russian, Austria-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires came to an end and were replaced by modernized governments. The early middle 20th century is known for the rise of militant nationalist governments, while aircraft, diesel engines, motor vehicles, radio and television, and applications of new medical knowledge began to work vast cultural changes in western society. The period is also noted for a worldwide economic depression and the beginnings of World War II. The middle 20th century is noted for world War II, during which the US and the USSR became "superpowers" and other western European powers, weakened by the war, released most of Asia from direct political rule. The late middle 20th century is noted for the decolonization of Africa as well. The various struggles of decolonization were accompanied by efforts of the superpowers to assert their own influence and counter that of the other in these areas, in what was called the "Cold War". Neither was wholly successful, and the struggle cost both of them prestige and influence, while internal divisions and conflicts became increasingly apparent in both. This trend continued during the late 20th century, until the USSR broke up into multiple smaller states and lost control over eastern Europe and islamic central Asia. The United States maintained a strong but indirect political, economic, and cultural influence on the rest of the world, amid signs of a decline from post WW II heights. In the early 21st century, a terrorist attack by Islamic militants led to a long-lasting war in Iraq and Afghanistan. China began to develop as a significant major power.


Science As with history in general, natural science is for the most part indirectly useful. in modern history. Physics and chemistry are at too low a level to be directly useful to modern history. Astronomical events can sometimes be identified. Galactic astronomy is less directly useful for history. Events of stellar astronomy and local astronomy can be better identified. Cosmology seems to be only indirectly useful. Earth science is useful for examining terrestrial events. Geology, hydrospheric science, atmospheric science, physical geography, and geohistory may all be applied. Biological events may also be noted, not so much those related to molecular biology, cell biology, organism biology, or systematics, as those which involve ecology and biological history. Biohistory is for the most part indirectly useful. Precambrian, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic eras are long past: Modern history belongs to the Cenozoic era. Personal studies Studies of the human body have become more important in modern history. Human body systems, body functions, diseases, life cycle, and form and apparance appear in various places. Psychology including studies of the nervous system, behavioral elements, mind, behavior patterns, development, mental disorders, personality, and social psychology is difficult to apply to history. There are too many individuals in the biography list who lived in the modern period to list here. Instead, these are considered in each particular century.	Links to other sites: History Wiz: Modern History The 16th to 19th centuries (Frank Smitha) Infoplease: 1000 to 1899 World History Wikipedia - Modern History Modern History (1776 - 1945) British Academy Portal: Modern History to c. 1800 British Academy Portal: Modern history from c. 1800 Internet Modern History Sourcebook Early modern resources Modern World History Resources Modern History: Useful links (Oxford University) Modern History (Organized by topic) Lectures on Early Modern European History
Anthropology Social foundations including social presentation, social interactions, social control, social group behavior, and group types will be useful in studies of modern history. Demography including birth and fertility, migration, morbidity and mortality, population structure, and population change is more easily applied to this period than to previous ones. Physical anthropology is less useful for study of human origins than for human variation and human dispersion. Human ecology including the influence of the environment on man and connections with other life has become significant in the modern period. The inflence of mankind on the envirnonment has increased substantially in this period. Knowledge of human geography is one of the characteristic features of modern history, and will serve as the foundation for historical geography. Modern European geography, Asian geography including Southwest Asian geography, South asian geography, Central Asian geography, Southeast Asian geography, East Asian geography, North Asian geography, North American geography, African geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography are all important. Particular groups will be more useful when they are better developed. Culture Material culture has advanced substantially during the modern period. industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machines, utilites, and other technology advanced considerably. Building technology including materials, building parts, furnishing, complete structures, and outdoor structures also advanced. Foodstuffs such as agricultural products, preserved and processed foods, and prepared foods can be considered. Clothing and dress also developed. Transportation technology including packaging, land transportation, water transportation, air transportation, and space transportation developed substantially. Communication technology including written communication, graphic communication, and electronic communication has also developed. Other artifacts such as toys, weapons, medicines, musical intruments, and sculpture are all well developed. Conceptual culture is essential for modern history. It includes Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world is important. Graphic arts including drawing, painting, printmaking, photography, and recently computer graphics are significant. Literature with its divisions of oral tradition, literary forms, literary types, and particular works is also important. Mathematics including mathematical foundations, arithmetic, algebra, analysis, geometry, and statistics developed and has been widely applied. Applied science including measurement, engineering science, navigation. medical science, information science, and applied social science will be useful. Philosophy including metaphysics, aesthetics, ethics, epistemology, and philosophical schools and doctrines is also applicable to modern history. Behavioral culture is significant. Customs including vital, living and dwelling, dress and adornment, social interaction, and institutional customs are important. Occupations such as food related, building related, transportation related, communication related, and industrial occupations can be examined. Service-related ocupations such as legal, education and training, protective, and service occupations are useful. Recreation and entertainment including music, dance, theater, games, and sports has not yet been closely examined. Cultural events including miscellaneous events, disasters, gatherings, and holidays are easier to study than they are for previous periods. Institutions Families including marriage, parent-child relations, kinship, and particular families are important but not as well studied as other areas. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions such as museums, libraries, and other venues, Educational organization including curriculum, students, faculty, and administration, and particular schools such as primary, secondary, and higher education such as at Harvard University is also important. Economics is also important in modern history. This includes activities such as production, distribution, and consumption. It also includes industries including agriculture, social and medical services, communications, transportation, and building construction. Particular companies such as Royal Dutch Shell, BP, Toyota Motor, Chevron, ING Group, and Total can be connected. Extraction and manufacturing industries including companies such as Exxon-Mobil, can be connected. Commercial and financial industries include companies such as Wal-Mart. Economic systems such as firms, networks, types of systems, and system behavior. As with history in general, modern history has often been taken as a chronicle of government. Law including tribal law, Asiatic law, Western Law, and International law has been important. Government structure including political parties, judicial systems, legislative systems, executive systems, government heads, and government forms is also significant. Government activities including administration have also been important. Succession including methods of election, inheritance, appointment, and seizure have been important. State relations including diplomacy, espionage, and warfare are highly visible. Particular governments are also useful. Local government is less prominent than national government. International government in the modern period has involved a transition from traditional empires to colonial empires, and from them to modern compacts such as temporary associations, special purpose organizations, regional associations (such as the EU, and world government such as the old League of Nations and the United Nations. Religion is also useful in modern history. Religous belief and practice are significant. Organization incuding unstructured, fragmented, and highly structured organization is also significant. Particular religious traditions are most easily identifiable. Abrahamic religion is probably the most widepread. Christianity including Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodoxy, Other traditional Christianity, and more recently Mormonism is also important. Islam is also influential. Judaism has been signifcant in modern history. Asiatic religion such as Indian religion including Buddhism Hinduism, Sikhism Jainism, Oriental religion including Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto, and Persian religion including Zoroastrianism, Manicheanism, and Mithraism have been significant. There has been a general decline in pagan religions. European pagan religion died out except for cultural remnants. Remnannts of Asiatic pagan religion survive. Secularism has also had important influence. Sociology As with history in general, the examination of social structure and change, communities, and peoples of the world gives weight and substance to modern history. Other history In order to fully understand modern history, it is necessary to be familiar with prehistory, antiquity, and the classical and medieval history that preceded it. In particular, this follows directly from the late medieval period, most directly from the 15th century. This can also be followed into the future including the near future such as the next month including Nov 2008 and Dec 2008, next quarter ( Jan 2009, February 2009, and March 2009) and next year including the second quarter 2009, third quarter 2009, and fourth quarter 2009 and a little ways into the middle future, and far future.

Science

As with history in general, natural science is for the most part indirectly useful. in modern history. Physics and chemistry are at too low a level to be directly useful to modern history. Astronomical events can sometimes be identified. Galactic astronomy is less directly useful for history. Events of stellar astronomy and local astronomy can be better identified. Cosmology seems to be only indirectly useful. Earth science is useful for examining terrestrial events. Geology, hydrospheric science, atmospheric science, physical geography, and geohistory may all be applied. Biological events may also be noted, not so much those related to molecular biology, cell biology, organism biology, or systematics, as those which involve ecology and biological history. Biohistory is for the most part indirectly useful. Precambrian, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic eras are long past: Modern history belongs to the Cenozoic era.

Personal studies

Studies of the human body have become more important in modern history. Human body systems, body functions, diseases, life cycle, and form and apparance appear in various places. Psychology including studies of the nervous system, behavioral elements, mind, behavior patterns, development, mental disorders, personality, and social psychology is difficult to apply to history. There are too many individuals in the biography list who lived in the modern period to list here. Instead, these are considered in each particular century.

Links to other sites:
History Wiz: Modern History
The 16th to 19th centuries (Frank Smitha)
Infoplease: 1000 to 1899 World History
Wikipedia - Modern History
Modern History (1776 - 1945)
British Academy Portal: Modern History to c. 1800
British Academy Portal: Modern history from c. 1800
Internet Modern History Sourcebook
Early modern resources
Modern World History Resources
Modern History: Useful links (Oxford University)
Modern History (Organized by topic)
Lectures on Early Modern European History

Anthropology

Social foundations including social presentation, social interactions, social control, social group behavior, and group types will be useful in studies of modern history. Demography including birth and fertility, migration, morbidity and mortality, population structure, and population change is more easily applied to this period than to previous ones. Physical anthropology is less useful for study of human origins than for human variation and human dispersion.

Human ecology including the influence of the environment on man and connections with other life has become significant in the modern period. The inflence of mankind on the envirnonment has increased substantially in this period.

Knowledge of human geography is one of the characteristic features of modern history, and will serve as the foundation for historical geography. Modern European geography, Asian geography including Southwest Asian geography, South asian geography, Central Asian geography, Southeast Asian geography, East Asian geography, North Asian geography, North American geography, African geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography are all important.

Particular groups will be more useful when they are better developed.

Culture

Material culture has advanced substantially during the modern period. industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machines, utilites, and other technology advanced considerably. Building technology including materials, building parts, furnishing, complete structures, and outdoor structures also advanced. Foodstuffs such as agricultural products, preserved and processed foods, and prepared foods can be considered. Clothing and dress also developed. Transportation technology including packaging, land transportation, water transportation, air transportation, and space transportation developed substantially. Communication technology including written communication, graphic communication, and electronic communication has also developed. Other artifacts such as toys, weapons, medicines, musical intruments, and sculpture are all well developed.

Conceptual culture is essential for modern history. It includes Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world is important. Graphic arts including drawing, painting, printmaking, photography, and recently computer graphics are significant. Literature with its divisions of oral tradition, literary forms, literary types, and particular works is also important. Mathematics including mathematical foundations, arithmetic, algebra, analysis, geometry, and statistics developed and has been widely applied. Applied science including measurement, engineering science, navigation. medical science, information science, and applied social science will be useful. Philosophy including metaphysics, aesthetics, ethics, epistemology, and philosophical schools and doctrines is also applicable to modern history.

Behavioral culture is significant. Customs including vital, living and dwelling, dress and adornment, social interaction, and institutional customs are important. Occupations such as food related, building related, transportation related, communication related, and industrial occupations can be examined. Service-related ocupations such as legal, education and training, protective, and service occupations are useful. Recreation and entertainment including music, dance, theater, games, and sports has not yet been closely examined. Cultural events including miscellaneous events, disasters, gatherings, and holidays are easier to study than they are for previous periods.

Institutions

Families including marriage, parent-child relations, kinship, and particular families are important but not as well studied as other areas.

Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions such as museums, libraries, and other venues, Educational organization including curriculum, students, faculty, and administration, and particular schools such as primary, secondary, and higher education such as at Harvard University is also important.

Economics is also important in modern history. This includes activities such as production, distribution, and consumption. It also includes industries including agriculture, social and medical services, communications, transportation, and building construction. Particular companies such as Royal Dutch Shell, BP, Toyota Motor, Chevron, ING Group, and Total can be connected. Extraction and manufacturing industries including companies such as Exxon-Mobil, can be connected. Commercial and financial industries include companies such as Wal-Mart. Economic systems such as firms, networks, types of systems, and system behavior.

As with history in general, modern history has often been taken as a chronicle of government. Law including tribal law, Asiatic law, Western Law, and International law has been important. Government structure including political parties, judicial systems, legislative systems, executive systems, government heads, and government forms is also significant. Government activities including administration have also been important. Succession including methods of election, inheritance, appointment, and seizure have been important. State relations including diplomacy, espionage, and warfare are highly visible. Particular governments are also useful. Local government is less prominent than national government. International government in the modern period has involved a transition from traditional empires to colonial empires, and from them to modern compacts such as temporary associations, special purpose organizations, regional associations (such as the EU, and world government such as the old League of Nations and the United Nations.

Religion is also useful in modern history. Religous belief and practice are significant. Organization incuding unstructured, fragmented, and highly structured organization is also significant. Particular religious traditions are most easily identifiable. Abrahamic religion is probably the most widepread. Christianity including Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodoxy, Other traditional Christianity, and more recently Mormonism is also important. Islam is also influential. Judaism has been signifcant in modern history. Asiatic religion such as Indian religion including Buddhism Hinduism, Sikhism Jainism, Oriental religion including Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto, and Persian religion including Zoroastrianism, Manicheanism, and Mithraism have been significant. There has been a general decline in pagan religions. European pagan religion died out except for cultural remnants. Remnannts of Asiatic pagan religion survive. Secularism has also had important influence.

Sociology

As with history in general, the examination of social structure and change, communities, and peoples of the world gives weight and substance to modern history.

Other history

In order to fully understand modern history, it is necessary to be familiar with prehistory, antiquity, and the classical and medieval history that preceded it. In particular, this follows directly from the late medieval period, most directly from the 15th century.

This can also be followed into the future including the near future such as the next month including Nov 2008 and Dec 2008, next quarter ( Jan 2009, February 2009, and March 2009) and next year including the second quarter 2009, third quarter 2009, and fourth quarter 2009 and a little ways into the middle future, and far future.

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