Late mid 19th century


The development of steamships (including armored versions), railroads, and ballooons; and the and telegraph, together with improved guns and weaponry helped make the American Civil war the first modern war. These developments also gave Europeans a continuing substantial military advantage over traditional civilizations. The invention of the telephone introduced long-distance voice communications. The germ or bacterial theory of disease and the introduction of antiseptic technique initiated a revolution in medicine. The United States gained the lead from Britain in technological advance. Slavery was abolished in Western civilization. However, unrestricted industrialization in Europe created social conditions that contributed to the origin of the Communist movement.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience History Modern History 19th Century

The development of steamships (including armored versions), railroads, and ballooons; and the and telegraph, together with improved guns and weaponry helped make the American Civil war the first modern war. These developments also gave Europeans a continuing substantial military advantage over traditional civilizations. The invention of the telephone introduced long-distance voice communications. The germ or bacterial theory of disease and the introduction of antiseptic technique initiated a revolution in medicine. The United States gained the lead from Britain in technological advance. Slavery was abolished in Western civilization. However, unrestricted industrialization in Europe created social conditions that contributed to the origin of the Communist movement.

Early 1860s

1856 - 1869 Mendel establishes foundations of genetics.
c. 1860-1865 Lincoln is elected 16th president of the United States. His election precipitates the American Civil War. The successful reunification of the country and the end of black slavery are credited to his wartime leadership.

Late 1860s

1867 Marx publishes "Das Kapital"
c. 1863 - 1883 Edison invents or improves numerous electrical and communication devices and begins building electrical power networks.
c 1865 - 1877. Lister introduces antiseptic methods into surgery.

Early 1870s

c. 1870-73 Maxwell publishes his works on electromagnetic theory and thermodynamics.
1871 Darwin publishes his "Descent of Man"
c. 1875 Bell invents the telephone.

Late 1870s

1876 Otto introduces the first commecially successful gasoline-powered internal combustion engine.


Applications and connections of science such as physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science will be made as this period is better developed. Biology including molecular biology, cell biology, organism biology, systematics, ecology, and biohistory can be connected.
Personal studies The human body including body systems, body functions, human life cycle, disease, and form and appearance will be considered. Psychology including behavioral elements, mind, behavior patterns, developmental psychology, mental disorders, personality, and social psychology may be useful. Biography is important. Prominent individuals who lived during the late-mid 19th century include: Darwin Edison Einstein Faraday Marconi Marx Maxwell Morton Pasteur Bell Rutherford Mendel Planck Lister Otto Stalin Freud Roentgen Lenin Ford Babbage Curie Gandhi Lincoln Anthropology Social foundations including social presentation, social interaction, social control, group types, and group behavior can be connected. Demography including birth, deaths, migration, population size and structure, and population change may be useful. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion may be useful. Human ecology including environmental effects on people, relations with other life, and the effect of people on the environment can be considered. Human geography including European geography, Asiatic geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography will be useful. Particular groups can also be connected. Culture Material components such as technology, buildings, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation devices, communication devices, and other artifacts will also be discussed. Conceptual culture including language, graphic arts, literature, mathematics, applied science, and philosophy can be examined. Behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events will be useful. Institutions Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families can be examined. Education including research, teaching, and cultural institutions will also be discussed. Educational organization including course material, students, faculty, and educational administration can be connected. Schools including primary education, secondary education, and higher education can be connected. Economics will be important. Economic activity including production, consumption, and distribution can be considered. Industries including companies, agriculture, extraction and manufacturing, building and construction, social and medical, tranportation, communications, and social and medical services can be connected. Economic systems including firms, networks, system types, and system behavior can be connected. Government can be examined. Law including tribal law, Asiatic law, Western law, and international law can be considered. Government structure including parties and interest groups, judicial systems, legislative systems, executive systems, heads of state, and forms of government can be connected. Government activity including administration, succession, and state relations can be considered. Particular governments including local, national, and international government can be examined. Religion including belief, practice, and organization can also be discussed. Particular traditions including Abrahamic religion, Asiatic religion, Secularism, and Pagan religion can also be considered. Sociology Social structure and change Social structure including anthropological structure, cultural structure, institutional structure, class structure, and community and regional structure can be considered. Social types including hunting and gathering, horticultural peoples, agrarian, and industrial societes were developing. Social change including social change factors and processes can be noted. Particular changes including those of the agricultural revolution, agrarian revolution and industrial revolution can be considered. Communities [ Sao Paulo, Los Angeles, Shanghai, Osaka, Cairo, Calcutta] can be used to help examine history. Studies of peoples of the world can also be used. Particular nations are useful. Iran, Thailand, France, Congo, Italy, UK and South Korea can be considered. Western civilization is important. Prussia defeated the Austrian empire and France, and proclaimed an empire called Germany. Cities include Mexico City. New York City became the largest city in the United States. Anglic peoples include the United States (Civil War and reconstruction). I have few details for Latin peoples. The French attempted to set up a monarchy in Mexico, but this attempt was defeated. Among Lusitanic peoples, I have no details for Brazil. Among Northeast European peoples, Russia expanded into South Central Asia. Asiatic civilization will also be connected as its peoples are better developed. Turkey continued to lose territory in the Balkans. Delhi seems to have bcome the capital of British India. Among Middle Eastern peoples, in Egypt, the Suez Canal was completed. The ruler of Egypt, who had overextended his resources, surrendered Egyptian shares in the canal to Great Britain. South Asian peoples include India (beginning resentment of British rule). Pakistan was part of India. Bangladesh was part of India. Bombay became an important center for cotton export. Oriental peoples incude those of China (end of Taiping rebellion, weakened central government). In Japan, following the Meiji Restoration, Japanese began an intensive program of acquiring Western technology. Cities include Tokyo. Cities such as Seoul were important. In Southeast Asia, I have no details for Indonesia (then known as the Dutch East Indies). The Philippines remained under Spanish rule. The French completed their conquest of Vietnam. African peoples can be considered. In Ethiopia the ruler offended the British, who came in and deposed him, but then left, and his successor had to resist Egyptian expansion. in Western Africa, in Nigeria, the British were setting up governmental structures. American Indian peoples are significant. I have no details for Mexico Cities include Mexico City. Among South American peoples, I lack details of Brazil. North American Indians including those found in the United States (Civil War and reconstruction) can be considered. Other History This is only weakly connected to other history through classical and medieval times. It is also only weakly connected to other modern history through the 18th century. This period is a continuation of the mid 19th century including the early 1840s, late 1840s, early 1850s, and late 1850s. It is continued in the late 19th century. This period is discussed and analyzed in the 20th century, including in the Early 20th Century, early-mid 20th Century, mid 20th Century, late-mid 20th century, late 20th century, and early 21st century. The future of these studies is obscure.

Applications and connections of science such as physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science will be made as this period is better developed. Biology including molecular biology, cell biology, organism biology, systematics, ecology, and biohistory can be connected.

Personal studies

The human body including body systems, body functions, human life cycle, disease, and form and appearance will be considered. Psychology including behavioral elements, mind, behavior patterns, developmental psychology, mental disorders, personality, and social psychology may be useful.

Biography is important. Prominent individuals who lived during the late-mid 19th century include:

Anthropology

Social foundations including social presentation, social interaction, social control, group types, and group behavior can be connected. Demography including birth, deaths, migration, population size and structure, and population change may be useful. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion may be useful. Human ecology including environmental effects on people, relations with other life, and the effect of people on the environment can be considered. Human geography including European geography, Asiatic geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography will be useful. Particular groups can also be connected.

Culture

Material components such as technology, buildings, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation devices, communication devices, and other artifacts will also be discussed. Conceptual culture including language, graphic arts, literature, mathematics, applied science, and philosophy can be examined. Behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events will be useful.

Institutions

Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families can be examined. Education including research, teaching, and cultural institutions will also be discussed. Educational organization including course material, students, faculty, and educational administration can be connected. Schools including primary education, secondary education, and higher education can be connected. Economics will be important. Economic activity including production, consumption, and distribution can be considered. Industries including companies, agriculture, extraction and manufacturing, building and construction, social and medical, tranportation, communications, and social and medical services can be connected. Economic systems including firms, networks, system types, and system behavior can be connected. Government can be examined. Law including tribal law, Asiatic law, Western law, and international law can be considered. Government structure including parties and interest groups, judicial systems, legislative systems, executive systems, heads of state, and forms of government can be connected. Government activity including administration, succession, and state relations can be considered. Particular governments including local, national, and international government can be examined. Religion including belief, practice, and organization can also be discussed. Particular traditions including Abrahamic religion, Asiatic religion, Secularism, and Pagan religion can also be considered.

Sociology

Social structure and change

Social structure including anthropological structure, cultural structure, institutional structure, class structure, and community and regional structure can be considered. Social types including hunting and gathering, horticultural peoples, agrarian, and industrial societes were developing. Social change including social change factors and processes can be noted. Particular changes including those of the agricultural revolution, agrarian revolution and industrial revolution can be considered.

Communities [ Sao Paulo, Los Angeles, Shanghai, Osaka, Cairo, Calcutta] can be used to help examine history.

Studies of peoples of the world can also be used. Particular nations are useful. Iran, Thailand, France, Congo, Italy, UK and South Korea can be considered.

Western civilization is important. Prussia defeated the Austrian empire and France, and proclaimed an empire called Germany. Cities include Mexico City. New York City became the largest city in the United States. Anglic peoples include the United States (Civil War and reconstruction). I have few details for Latin peoples. The French attempted to set up a monarchy in Mexico, but this attempt was defeated. Among Lusitanic peoples, I have no details for Brazil. Among Northeast European peoples, Russia expanded into South Central Asia.

Asiatic civilization will also be connected as its peoples are better developed. Turkey continued to lose territory in the Balkans. Delhi seems to have bcome the capital of British India. Among Middle Eastern peoples, in Egypt, the Suez Canal was completed. The ruler of Egypt, who had overextended his resources, surrendered Egyptian shares in the canal to Great Britain. South Asian peoples include India (beginning resentment of British rule). Pakistan was part of India. Bangladesh was part of India. Bombay became an important center for cotton export. Oriental peoples incude those of China (end of Taiping rebellion, weakened central government). In Japan, following the Meiji Restoration, Japanese began an intensive program of acquiring Western technology. Cities include Tokyo. Cities such as Seoul were important. In Southeast Asia, I have no details for Indonesia (then known as the Dutch East Indies). The Philippines remained under Spanish rule. The French completed their conquest of Vietnam.

African peoples can be considered. In Ethiopia the ruler offended the British, who came in and deposed him, but then left, and his successor had to resist Egyptian expansion. in Western Africa, in Nigeria, the British were setting up governmental structures.

American Indian peoples are significant. I have no details for Mexico Cities include Mexico City. Among South American peoples, I lack details of Brazil. North American Indians including those found in the United States (Civil War and reconstruction) can be considered.

Other History

This is only weakly connected to other history through classical and medieval times. It is also only weakly connected to other modern history through the 18th century. This period is a continuation of the mid 19th century including the early 1840s, late 1840s, early 1850s, and late 1850s.

It is continued in the late 19th century. This period is discussed and analyzed in the 20th century, including in the Early 20th Century, early-mid 20th Century, mid 20th Century, late-mid 20th century, late 20th century, and early 21st century. The future of these studies is obscure.

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