19th Century


The 19th century is noted for the cultural dominance of the British Empire, although it can be seen that the United States was an increasingly important power. Advances in science and technology, collectively known as the industrial revolution, began to transform western civilization. The rest of the world could hardly help but notice the difference between their traditional ways and the educated, industrialized european civilization, and began to react to Western dominance in many different ways.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience History Modern History Early 19th Century Early-mid 19th century Middle 19th Century Late-Mid 19th Century Late 19th Century
This century, like others, is divided arbitrarily into Early, Early middle, Middle, Late middle, and Late periods of 20 years each.

The 19th century is noted for the cultural dominance of the British Empire, although it can be seen that the United States was an increasingly important power. Advances in science and technology, collectively known as the industrial revolution, began to transform western civilization.

The rest of the world could hardly help but notice the difference between their traditional ways and the educated, industrialized european civilization, and began to react to Western dominance in many different ways.

This century, like others, is divided arbitrarily into Early, Early middle, Middle, Late middle, and Late periods of 20 years each.

Early 19th century (1801-1820)

Starting in England, rapid progress in transportation, communication, and energy technology started to bring about the Industrial Revolution. The Napoleonic wars brought about about a significant political realignment of Europe. The republic of Greater Colombia in northern South America, led by Simon Bolivar, was the first of the Spanish colonies to break away. The British took control of the colonies of South Africa.

Early mid 19th century (1821-1840)

Railroads and steam-powered factories began to appear in other areas of Western Europe besides Britain. Greater Columbia broke up into smaller countries. Mexico and southern South America broke away from Spain, and Brazil was granted independence from Portugal. The British successfully resisted an attempt by Burma to expand in the first Anglo-Burmese war.

Mid 19th century (1841-1860)

Railroad networks continued to grow and the telegraph was invented. Europeans continued to have a technological advantage over the rest of the world, and continued their expansion. The Crimean war, in which England, France, and the Ottoman Empire defeated Russia, gained much publicity. A rebellion in India resulted in the disincorporation of the British East India company and direct British rule. The British expanded into Burma in the second Anglo-Burmese war.

Late mid 19th century (1861-1880)

Railroad and telegraph networks continued to grow and played an important role in Western civilization. By use of these industrial and military advantages, Europeans continued to extent their rule or dominance over the rest of the world. The European exploration of the interior of Africa continued in earnest. The early 1860s, late 1860s and early 1870s can be connected. The late 1870s can be connected.

Late 19th century (1881-1900)

During these two decades, the increasing use and reliability of steamships, railroads, the telephone and telegraph, and advanced weaponry gave Europeans a significant technological advantage over other nations. Burma was annexed by the British in the third Anglo-Burmese war. Subsaharan Africa was divided among colonial powers. In the early 1880s, the island of Krakatoa exploded in a volcanic eruption. For the late 1880s, I have not recorded significant events. In the early 1890s, China was defeated in the Sino-Japanese war. In the late 1890s, radio was demonstrated useful in communication with ships at sea. China was nearly divided among colonial powers, and the Boxer Rebellion began. The Boer war between the British and the Dutch-descended Boers began


Other History Prehistory Prehistory is not as useful in examination of the 19th century as more recent history is. Early prehistory including the Pliocene, early Pleistocene, early mid Pleistocene, late mid Pleistocene, and late Pleistocene can be connected. Middle prehistory including the 5th decamillennium BP, 4th decamillennium BP, 3rd decamillennium BP, and 2nd decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory including the early 8th millennium BC, late 8th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, late 7th millennium BC, early 6th millennium BC, and late 6th millennium BC can be connected.	Links to other sites: Yahoo directory: 19th century Internet Modern History Sourcebook: the Long 19th Century 19th century history
Antiquity The 5th millennium BC including the early 5th millennium BC, early mid 5th millennium BC, mid 5th millennium BC, late mid 5th millennium BC, and late 5th millennium BC can be connected. The 4th millennium BC including the early 4th millennium BC, early mid 4th millennium BC, mid 4th millennium BC, late mid 4th millennium BC, and late 4th millennium BC can be connected. The 3rd millennium BC including the early 3rd millennium BC, early mid 3rd millennium BC, mid 3rd millennium BC, late mid 3rd millennium BC, and late 3rd millennium BC can be referred to. The 2nd millennium BC including the early 2nd millennium BC, early mid 2nd millennium BC, mid 2nd millennium BC, late mid 2nd millennium BC, and late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The early 1st millennium BC including the 10th century BC, 9th century BC, 8th century BC, 7th century BC, and 6th century BC can be connected. Classical and medieval history Early classical history including the 5th century BC, 4th century BC, 3rd century BC, 2nd century BC, and 1st century BC can be examined. Late classical history including the 1st century CE, 2nd century CE, 3rd century CE, 4th century CE, and 5th century CE can be connected. Early medieval times including the 6th century, 7th century, 8th century, 9th century, and 10th century can be connected. Late medieval times including the 11th century, 12th century, 13th century, 14th century, and 15th century can be connected. Other modern history The 16th century including the early 16th century, early mid 16th century, mid 16th century, late mid 16th century, and late 16th century can be connected. The 17th century including the early 17th century, early mid 18th century, mid 17th century, late mid 17th century, and late 17th century can be considered. The late 17th century including the early 1680s, late 1680s, early 1690s, and late 1690s can be connected. 18th century Events of the 19th century can be better understood by examination of the previous century. The early 18th century including the early 1700s, late 1700s, early 1710s, and late 1710s can be connected. The early mid 18th century including the early 1720s, late 1720s, early 1710s, and late 1710s can be connected. The mid 18th century including the early 1740s, late 1740s, early 1750s, and late 1750s can be connected. The late mid 18th century including the early 1760s, late 1760s, early 1770s, and late 1770s can be connected. The late 18th century including the early 1780s, late 1780s, early 1790s, and late 1790s can be connected. 20th century Events of the late 19th century are continued in and overlap with the early 20th century including the early 1900s, late 1900s, early 1910s, and late 1910s. This has been studied in the early mid 20th century including the early 1920s, late 1920s, early 1930s, and late 1930s. The mid 20th century including the early 1940s, late 1940s, early 1950s, and late 1950s can be connected. The late-mid 20th century including the early 1960s, late 1960s, early 1970s, and late 1970s can be connected. The late 20th century including the early 1980s and late 1980s can be connected. The early 1990s including 1991, 1992, 1992, 1994, and 1995 can be connected. The late 1990s including 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, and 2000 can be connected. Early 21st century The early 2000s including 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 can be connected. The late 2000s, down to 2006, 2007, and 2008 can be connected. 2009 including the first quarter 2009, second quarter 2009, third quarter 2009, and fourth quarter 2009 can be connected. 2010 including the first quarter 2010, second quarter 2010, and third quarter 2010 can be connected. The fourth quarter 2010 including October 2010, November 2010, and December 2010 can be connected. The early 2010s can be connected. 2011 can be connected. The first quarter 2011 can be connected. January 2011 including 2011 week 1, 2011 week 2, 2011 week 3, 2011 week 4, 2011 week 5, and 2011 week 6 can be connected. February 2011 and March 2011 can be connected. The second quarter 2011 including April 2011, May 2011, and June 2011 can be conneected. The third quarter 2011, and fourth quarter 2011 can be connected. Future The near future including next month, next quarter, and next year can be considered. The middle future including the next 5 years, next 20 years, next century, and next 5 centuries can be connected. The far future including the next 2 millennia, next 10,000 years, next 200,000 years, next million years, and beyond the next million years can be examined. Sociology As with history in general and modern history, the examination of peoples of the world, communities, and social structure and change gives weight and substance to 19th century history. Institutions Religion, government, economics, education, and families are useful in examination of the early 19th century, early-mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century. Culture Culture is useful in examination of the early 19th century, early-mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century. Behavioral culture Behavioral culture is also significant and useful in examination of the early 19th century, early-mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century. Cultural events such as miscellaneous events, disasters, meetings, and holidays are important in 19th century history. Recreation and entertainment including music, dance, theater, games, and sports is important. Occupations including food-related, building related, transportation, communication, industrial, and service occupations are significant. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling customs, dress and adornment customs, social interaction customs, and institutional customs. Conceptual culture Conceptual culture can be applied to the 19th century. Philosophy including logic, epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, ethics, special topics, and philosophical schools and doctrines can be considered. Applied science including applied social science, information and computing science, medical science, navigation, engineering science, and measurement might be considered. Mathematics including statistics, geometry, analysis, algebra, arithmetic, and mathematical foundations developed substantially and can be applied. Literature and its divisions of oral tradition, forms, types and genres, and works of literature is highly important. Graphic arts including drawing, painting, printmaking and the newly developed art of photography were important. Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world will also be important. Material culture Material culture can be applied to the 19th century. Miscellaneous artifacts such as sculpture, toys, medicines, and musical instruments can be connected. Communication technology developed. Electronic communication originated. Graphic and written communication can be considered. Transportation technology including air transportation, water transportation, land transportation, and packaging can be considered. Clothing can be considered. Foodstuffs including agricultural products, processed and preserved foods, and prepared foods will be useful. Building technology including outdoor structures, complete buildings, furnishings, building components, and material can be considered. Industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machinery, utilities, and other technology developed and changed society profoundly. Anthropology Anthropology useful in examination of the early 19th century, early-mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century. Particular groups Particular groups can be connected. Wright Brothers American Academy of Arts and Sciences Royal Society Groups that were founded later but are engaged in study of this period include: Victorian Society World History Association Human geography Asian geography including Southwest Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and North Asia will be useful. European geography including Balkan geography, Itailan geography, Iberian geography, East European geography, Central European geography, Northwest European geography, European Island geography, and Scandinavian geography can be connected. African geography including Northern African geography, Western African geography, Eastern African geography, North Central African geography, South Central African geography, and Southern African geography can be connected. North American geography including Northern North American geography, Middle North American geography, and Southern North American geography can be connected. South American geography can be connected. Oceanic geography can be connected. Human ecology Human effects on the environment can be connected. Relations with other life can be connected. Environmental influence on peoples can be connected. Physical anthropology Human dispersion can be connected. Racial variation can be connected. Human origins can be connected. Demography Population change can be connected. Population size and structure can be connected. Mortality and morbidity can be connected. Migration can be connected. Birth and fertility can be connected. Social foundations Social group behavior can be connected. Social group types can be connected. Social control can be connected. Social interaction can be connected. Social presentation can be connected. Personal studies Biography Biographies will be useful in studying events of this period. These are being examined in the particular divisions of the 19th century. Psychology Social psychology can be connected. Personality can be connected. Mental disorders can be connected. Developmental psychology can be connected. Behavior patterns can be connected. Mind can be connected. Behavioral elements can be connected. Human body Form and appearance can be connected. Disease can be connected. Human life cycle can be connected. Body functions can be connected. Human body systems can be connected. Science Biology Discoveries in biology significantly influenced history. Biohistory including Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic periods can be connected. Ecology including biogeography, ecosystems, evolution, systems ecology, community ecology, population ecology, and behavioral ecology can be connected. Systematics including animals, fungi, plants, protists, and microbes can be connected. Organism biology including behavior, life cycle, form, organ systems, tissues, and habitat can be connected. Cell biology including cell behavior, cell types, and cell anatomy can be connected. Molecular biology including nucleic acids, prteins, lipids, carbohydrates, small organic molecules, and inorganics can be connected. Earth science Geohistory including Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic periods can be connected. Physical geography including mapping, terrestrial geography, and oceanic geography can be connected. Atmospheric science including climatology, meteorology, and atmospheric structure can be connected. Hydrospheric science including the oceans, glaciers, groundwater, and fresh water can be connected. Geology including interior geology, geological processes, landforms, petrology, and mineralogy can be connected. Astronomy Cosmology was unknown in this period. Galactic astronomy can be connected. Stellar astronomy including astrocartography, star clusters, stars, and the interstellar medium can be connected. Local astronomy including solar system history, the sun, planetary systems, minor bodies, and the interplanetary medium can be connected. Chemistry Chemical systems including organic systems, inorganic systems, gaseous systems, liquid systems, and solid systems can be connected. Chemical change including nuclear reactions, chemical reactions, and physical change can be connected. Chemical substances including mixtures, compounds, and elements can be connected. Physics The structure of matter including exotic matter, common bulk matter, molecular physics, atomic physics, and subatomic physics can be connected. Quantum physics had not yet developed, but can be applied and considered. Relativity theory including general reltivity and special relativity had not yet developed but can be applied and considered. Electromagnetism including optics, magnetism, electric current, and electrostatics can be connected. Thermodynamics including nonclassical thermodynamics, classical thermodynamics, and statistical mechanics can be connected. Mechanics including gravitation, nonrigid mechanics, rigid body mechanics, and particle mechanics can be connected.

Other History

Prehistory

Prehistory is not as useful in examination of the 19th century as more recent history is. Early prehistory including the Pliocene, early Pleistocene, early mid Pleistocene, late mid Pleistocene, and late Pleistocene can be connected. Middle prehistory including the 5th decamillennium BP, 4th decamillennium BP, 3rd decamillennium BP, and 2nd decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory including the early 8th millennium BC, late 8th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, late 7th millennium BC, early 6th millennium BC, and late 6th millennium BC can be connected.

Links to other sites:

Antiquity

The 5th millennium BC including the early 5th millennium BC, early mid 5th millennium BC, mid 5th millennium BC, late mid 5th millennium BC, and late 5th millennium BC can be connected. The 4th millennium BC including the early 4th millennium BC, early mid 4th millennium BC, mid 4th millennium BC, late mid 4th millennium BC, and late 4th millennium BC can be connected. The 3rd millennium BC including the early 3rd millennium BC, early mid 3rd millennium BC, mid 3rd millennium BC, late mid 3rd millennium BC, and late 3rd millennium BC can be referred to. The 2nd millennium BC including the early 2nd millennium BC, early mid 2nd millennium BC, mid 2nd millennium BC, late mid 2nd millennium BC, and late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The early 1st millennium BC including the 10th century BC, 9th century BC, 8th century BC, 7th century BC, and 6th century BC can be connected.

Classical and medieval history

Early classical history including the 5th century BC, 4th century BC, 3rd century BC, 2nd century BC, and 1st century BC can be examined. Late classical history including the 1st century CE, 2nd century CE, 3rd century CE, 4th century CE, and 5th century CE can be connected. Early medieval times including the 6th century, 7th century, 8th century, 9th century, and 10th century can be connected. Late medieval times including the 11th century, 12th century, 13th century, 14th century, and 15th century can be connected.

Other modern history

The 16th century including the early 16th century, early mid 16th century, mid 16th century, late mid 16th century, and late 16th century can be connected.

The 17th century including the early 17th century, early mid 18th century, mid 17th century, late mid 17th century, and late 17th century can be considered. The late 17th century including the early 1680s, late 1680s, early 1690s, and late 1690s can be connected.

18th century

Events of the 19th century can be better understood by examination of the previous century. The early 18th century including the early 1700s, late 1700s, early 1710s, and late 1710s can be connected. The early mid 18th century including the early 1720s, late 1720s, early 1710s, and late 1710s can be connected. The mid 18th century including the early 1740s, late 1740s, early 1750s, and late 1750s can be connected. The late mid 18th century including the early 1760s, late 1760s, early 1770s, and late 1770s can be connected. The late 18th century including the early 1780s, late 1780s, early 1790s, and late 1790s can be connected.

20th century

Events of the late 19th century are continued in and overlap with the early 20th century including the early 1900s, late 1900s, early 1910s, and late 1910s. This has been studied in the early mid 20th century including the early 1920s, late 1920s, early 1930s, and late 1930s. The mid 20th century including the early 1940s, late 1940s, early 1950s, and late 1950s can be connected. The late-mid 20th century including the early 1960s, late 1960s, early 1970s, and late 1970s can be connected.

The late 20th century including the early 1980s and late 1980s can be connected. The early 1990s including 1991, 1992, 1992, 1994, and 1995 can be connected. The late 1990s including 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, and 2000 can be connected.

Early 21st century

The early 2000s including 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 can be connected.

The late 2000s, down to 2006, 2007, and 2008 can be connected. 2009 including the first quarter 2009, second quarter 2009, third quarter 2009, and fourth quarter 2009 can be connected. 2010 including the first quarter 2010, second quarter 2010, and third quarter 2010 can be connected. The fourth quarter 2010 including October 2010, November 2010, and December 2010 can be connected.

The early 2010s can be connected. 2011 can be connected. The first quarter 2011 can be connected. January 2011 including 2011 week 1, 2011 week 2, 2011 week 3, 2011 week 4, 2011 week 5, and 2011 week 6 can be connected. February 2011 and March 2011 can be connected. The second quarter 2011 including April 2011, May 2011, and June 2011 can be conneected. The third quarter 2011, and fourth quarter 2011 can be connected.

Future

The near future including next month, next quarter, and next year can be considered. The middle future including the next 5 years, next 20 years, next century, and next 5 centuries can be connected. The far future including the next 2 millennia, next 10,000 years, next 200,000 years, next million years, and beyond the next million years can be examined.

Sociology

As with history in general and modern history, the examination of peoples of the world, communities, and social structure and change gives weight and substance to 19th century history.

Institutions

Religion, government, economics, education, and families are useful in examination of the early 19th century, early-mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century.

Culture

Culture is useful in examination of the early 19th century, early-mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century.

Behavioral culture

Behavioral culture is also significant and useful in examination of the early 19th century, early-mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century. Cultural events such as miscellaneous events, disasters, meetings, and holidays are important in 19th century history. Recreation and entertainment including music, dance, theater, games, and sports is important. Occupations including food-related, building related, transportation, communication, industrial, and service occupations are significant. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling customs, dress and adornment customs, social interaction customs, and institutional customs.

Conceptual culture

Conceptual culture can be applied to the 19th century.

Philosophy including logic, epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, ethics, special topics, and philosophical schools and doctrines can be considered. Applied science including applied social science, information and computing science, medical science, navigation, engineering science, and measurement might be considered. Mathematics including statistics, geometry, analysis, algebra, arithmetic, and mathematical foundations developed substantially and can be applied. Literature and its divisions of oral tradition, forms, types and genres, and works of literature is highly important. Graphic arts including drawing, painting, printmaking and the newly developed art of photography were important. Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world will also be important.

Material culture

Material culture can be applied to the 19th century.

Miscellaneous artifacts such as sculpture, toys, medicines, and musical instruments can be connected. Communication technology developed. Electronic communication originated. Graphic and written communication can be considered. Transportation technology including air transportation, water transportation, land transportation, and packaging can be considered. Clothing can be considered. Foodstuffs including agricultural products, processed and preserved foods, and prepared foods will be useful. Building technology including outdoor structures, complete buildings, furnishings, building components, and material can be considered. Industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machinery, utilities, and other technology developed and changed society profoundly.

Anthropology

Anthropology useful in examination of the early 19th century, early-mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century.

Particular groups

Particular groups can be connected.

Groups that were founded later but are engaged in study of this period include:

Human geography

Asian geography including Southwest Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and North Asia will be useful. European geography including Balkan geography, Itailan geography, Iberian geography, East European geography, Central European geography, Northwest European geography, European Island geography, and Scandinavian geography can be connected. African geography including Northern African geography, Western African geography, Eastern African geography, North Central African geography, South Central African geography, and Southern African geography can be connected. North American geography including Northern North American geography, Middle North American geography, and Southern North American geography can be connected. South American geography can be connected. Oceanic geography can be connected.

Human ecology

Human effects on the environment can be connected. Relations with other life can be connected. Environmental influence on peoples can be connected.

Physical anthropology

Human dispersion can be connected. Racial variation can be connected. Human origins can be connected.

Demography

Population change can be connected. Population size and structure can be connected. Mortality and morbidity can be connected. Migration can be connected. Birth and fertility can be connected.

Social foundations

Social group behavior can be connected. Social group types can be connected. Social control can be connected. Social interaction can be connected. Social presentation can be connected.

Personal studies

Biography

Biographies will be useful in studying events of this period. These are being examined in the particular divisions of the 19th century.

Psychology

Social psychology can be connected. Personality can be connected. Mental disorders can be connected. Developmental psychology can be connected. Behavior patterns can be connected. Mind can be connected. Behavioral elements can be connected.

Human body

Form and appearance can be connected. Disease can be connected. Human life cycle can be connected. Body functions can be connected. Human body systems can be connected.

Science

Biology

Discoveries in biology significantly influenced history. Biohistory including Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic periods can be connected. Ecology including biogeography, ecosystems, evolution, systems ecology, community ecology, population ecology, and behavioral ecology can be connected. Systematics including animals, fungi, plants, protists, and microbes can be connected. Organism biology including behavior, life cycle, form, organ systems, tissues, and habitat can be connected. Cell biology including cell behavior, cell types, and cell anatomy can be connected. Molecular biology including nucleic acids, prteins, lipids, carbohydrates, small organic molecules, and inorganics can be connected.

Earth science

Geohistory including Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic periods can be connected. Physical geography including mapping, terrestrial geography, and oceanic geography can be connected. Atmospheric science including climatology, meteorology, and atmospheric structure can be connected. Hydrospheric science including the oceans, glaciers, groundwater, and fresh water can be connected. Geology including interior geology, geological processes, landforms, petrology, and mineralogy can be connected.

Astronomy

Cosmology was unknown in this period. Galactic astronomy can be connected. Stellar astronomy including astrocartography, star clusters, stars, and the interstellar medium can be connected. Local astronomy including solar system history, the sun, planetary systems, minor bodies, and the interplanetary medium can be connected.

Chemistry

Chemical systems including organic systems, inorganic systems, gaseous systems, liquid systems, and solid systems can be connected. Chemical change including nuclear reactions, chemical reactions, and physical change can be connected. Chemical substances including mixtures, compounds, and elements can be connected.

Physics

The structure of matter including exotic matter, common bulk matter, molecular physics, atomic physics, and subatomic physics can be connected. Quantum physics had not yet developed, but can be applied and considered. Relativity theory including general reltivity and special relativity had not yet developed but can be applied and considered. Electromagnetism including optics, magnetism, electric current, and electrostatics can be connected. Thermodynamics including nonclassical thermodynamics, classical thermodynamics, and statistical mechanics can be connected. Mechanics including gravitation, nonrigid mechanics, rigid body mechanics, and particle mechanics can be connected.

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