18th Century


The 18th century is noted for the continuing spread and influence of Western civilization. Religious warfare declined, and rational secular philosophy began to have a major influence in society, and Western technology continued to progress. Struggles between the nations of Europe were reflected in the change of administration of colonial posessions, which continued to increase as missionaries, traders, and settlers from Europe were backed by military force. The older civilizations of Asia were increasingly forced to deal with the seagoing powers of Europe.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience History Modern History Early 18th century Early-mid 18th century Mid 18th century Late-mid 18th century Late 18th century

The 18th century is noted for the continuing spread and influence of Western civilization. Religious warfare declined, and rational secular philosophy began to have a major influence in society, and Western technology continued to progress. Struggles between the nations of Europe were reflected in the change of administration of colonial posessions, which continued to increase as missionaries, traders, and settlers from Europe were backed by military force. The older civilizations of Asia were increasingly forced to deal with the seagoing powers of Europe.

Early 18th Century (1701- 1720)

Bach was an important musical composer. Peter the Great proclaimed himself tsar of Russia and pursued a vigorous moernization and expansion program.

Early - mid 18th Century (1721 - 1740)

Voltaire began writing as an author and social critic. Euler began working in mathematics. Franklin began to establish his reputation as a printer, inventor, scientist, and civic leader.

Middle 18th Century (1741 - 1760)

Voltaire continued writing as an author and social critic. Euiler continued his work in mathematics. Franklin continued to establish his reputation as a printer, inventor, scientist, and civic leader. Rosseau discussed important concepts in political philosophy.

Late - mid 18th Century (1761 - 1780)

Watt began work on the steam engine, while Lavoisier began work experiments in chemistry. The British defeated the French and took conrol of the French colonies in what is now Canada. Tensions between Britain and the American colonies arose, resulting in the outbreak of warfare. The colonies declared their independence and named George Washington as commander-in-chief.

Late 18th Century (1781 - 1800)

The chemist Lavoisier was instrumental in founding modern Chemistry, while Watt continue to improve the steam engine. Jenner introduced vaccination as a means to prevent smallpox. The American revolution ended and independence was granted by Great Britain. After a period of weak government, the US Constitution was adopted, with George Washington as first President of the United States. The success of the American Revolution helped inspire a French Revolution.


The applications and connections of science to the 18th century including physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth science, and biology will be examined in more detail as the site develops. Connections to personal studies including the human body, psychology, and biography will also be made. The most prominent particular individuals who lived at least partly in this century are mentioned in the particular 20 year periods.	Links to other sites: Eighteenth Century Resources - History Eighteenth Century History - The Age of Reason and Change
Anthropology Social foundations including social presentation, social interaction, social control, group types, and group behavior can be connected. Demography including births, migration, deaths, population size and structure, and population change can be considered. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion can be connected. Human ecology including effects of the environment on people, interactions with other life, and human effects on the environment are also useful. Human geography including European geography, Asian geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography will be significant. Asian geography including Southwest Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and India will be useful. Particular groups may be useful. Culture Material culture including clothing, buildings, transportation technology, communication technology, and other artifacts will be important. Industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machinery, utilities, and other technology will be significant. Foodstuffs including agricultural products, processed and preserved foods, and prepared foods can be considered. Conceptual culture including mathematics and applied science will be significant. Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world will be especially useful. Graphic arts including drawing, painting, and printmaking developed. Literature including oral tradition, forms, types and genres, and literary works is important. Philosophy including logic, epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics, particular topics, and schools and doctrines may be useful. Behavioral culture will be useful. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling customs, dress and adornment, social interaction, and institutional customs are useful. Occupations including food related, building related, transportation related, communications related, industrial, and service occupations are important. Recreation and entertainment including the music, dance, theater, sports, and games can be identified. Cultural events such as miscellaneous events, disasters, fairs, and holidays will also be useful. Institutions Family including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families can be examined. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and particular schools will also be examined. Economics including industries and companies will be significant. Economic activity including production, distribution and exchange, and consumption will be significant. Economic systems including firms, networks, types of systems, and system behavior can be examined. Government will be useful. Law including tribal law, Asiatic law, Western law, and international law can be considered. Government structure including political parties,judicial cystems, legistlative systems, executive systems, head of government, and forms of government will be useful. Government activity including administration, succession, and state relations will be useful. particular governments including local, and national governments will be useful. International governments included principally traditional and colonial empires. Religion including religious belief, practice, organization, and particular traditions will also be useful. Abrahamic religion including Islam, and Judaism can be discussied. Christianity including Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox varieties can also be discussed. Asiatic religion including Persian, Indian, and Oriental varieties is useful. Pagan religion including Eeuropean pagan, Asiatic pagan, African pagan, and American Indian pagan religion can be discussed. Secularism can be discussed. Sociology Social structure and change is highly significant. Social structure including anthropological structure, cultural structure, institutional structure, class structure, and community and regional structurre will be important. Social types include hunting and gathering, horticultural, agrarian, and early industrial societies. Social change including social change factors will be significant. Social change processes include innovation, transmissin, adaptation, and extinction. Particular changes and movements include the agricultural revolution, the agrarian revolution and early stages of the industrial revolution. Communities will also be developed. Major cities include Istanbul, Lagos, Shenzhen, Canto, Paris, Chicago Peoples of the world are highly important. Particular nations are discussed under the peoles they belong to. [Recently connected nations include Morocco, Canada, Algeria, Afghanistan, Peru, Nepal, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Venezuela, Malaysia, North Korea, Taiwan,] Western civilization began to become noticeably prominent. Nations include Poland. Cities include London. Anglic peoples including Anglo-American were significant, and Anglo-Australian peoples may also have been established in this century. The UK was among the more important nations of the world. The United States (which became independent) was not yet prominent. Cities include New York City. Latin peoples include Argentina. Cities include Rio de Janeiro. Among Italic peoples, Italy was divided. Among French peoples, France had something of a Colonial empire. Hispanic peoples were significant. The empire centered in Spain began to decline. Buenos Aires grew as a city. Among Hispanic Mexican peoples, Mexico grew as a Spanish colony with its city of Mexico City. Los Angeles was founded as a city. Hispanic Colombian America including Colombia grew as a Spanish colony. Lusitanic peoples including Brazil (which remained a Portuguese colony) with its city of Sao Paulo are important. Northeast European peoples such as those of Russia (which became an important European power) are significant. Ukraine is also significant. Cities include Moscow. Germanic peoples such as those of Germany (where Prussia and Austria were contending for influence) were also important. Balkan and Scandinavian poples were also important. Asiatic peoples may be considered. These nations include Myanmar. Cities include Tehran. The Middle East was beginning to experience stronger European influence, with nations such as Britain, France, and Russia becoming involved in its affairs. It includes nations such as Egypt (which was under Ottoman Rule) Turkey and Iran. Cities include Cairo. In South Asia, India (where the British were expanding their holdings), Bombay.Delhi.Calcutta. Pakistan (which was invaded and occupied by Afghans) with its city of Karachi which was founded, and Bangladesh (Where the British came to rule) were increasingly coming under European control. Cities include Dacca. In the Orient, China (where the Qing dynasty reached its height) included Shanghai and was indifferent to Europe. Japan (which kept itself isolated from Western contact) included the cities of Tokyo and Osaka. I have little information on South Korea. Cities include Seoul and Beijing. I have little information on Southeast Asia, including nations such Indonesia (which was ruled by the Dutch East Asia company or VOC) with cities of Jakarta. It also includes the Philippines (which was ruled by the Spanish), Vietnam (Mostly under Chinese rule), and Thailand. Cities include Manila. Central Asia began to come under Chinese and Russian rule. African peoples are not well known in this period. South Africa is not well known. East African peoples such as those of Ethiopia are not well known. Sudan is not well known. West African peoples such as those of Nigeria are not well known. Central African peoples including those of Congo are not well known. American Indian peoples are not yet as well known. Nations related to them include Argentina. Meso-american peoples such as those of Mexico (which remained a Spanish colony) are significant. South American peoples such as those in Brazil (which remained a Portuguese colony), Colombia (A Spanish colony) and North American Indians include those of the United States (which began to deal with the Indians independently). Other History Prehistory, antiquity, and classical and medieval history are not as directly useful to this period as more recent history is. Events of his period overlap with the 17th century at the early end. Events of this period are continued in the 19th century , particularly in the early 19th century, and continued to have direct influence in the early mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century. Studies are continued in the 20th century. The early 20th, early mid 20th, mid 20th, and late mid 20th centuries all have information. In the late 20th century, studies have continued with the early 1980s, late 1980s, early 1990s, and late 1990s. They also continue into the early 21st century and early 2000s and late 2000s. They will also be continued into the future, including the early future, middle future, and far future.

The applications and connections of science to the 18th century including physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth science, and biology will be examined in more detail as the site develops.

Connections to personal studies including the human body, psychology, and biography will also be made. The most prominent particular individuals who lived at least partly in this century are mentioned in the particular 20 year periods.

Links to other sites:

Anthropology

Social foundations including social presentation, social interaction, social control, group types, and group behavior can be connected. Demography including births, migration, deaths, population size and structure, and population change can be considered. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion can be connected. Human ecology including effects of the environment on people, interactions with other life, and human effects on the environment are also useful. Human geography including European geography, Asian geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography will be significant. Asian geography including Southwest Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and India will be useful. Particular groups may be useful.

Culture

Material culture including clothing, buildings, transportation technology, communication technology, and other artifacts will be important. Industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machinery, utilities, and other technology will be significant. Foodstuffs including agricultural products, processed and preserved foods, and prepared foods can be considered. Conceptual culture including mathematics and applied science will be significant. Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world will be especially useful. Graphic arts including drawing, painting, and printmaking developed. Literature including oral tradition, forms, types and genres, and literary works is important. Philosophy including logic, epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics, particular topics, and schools and doctrines may be useful.

Behavioral culture will be useful. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling customs, dress and adornment, social interaction, and institutional customs are useful. Occupations including food related, building related, transportation related, communications related, industrial, and service occupations are important. Recreation and entertainment including the music, dance, theater, sports, and games can be identified. Cultural events such as miscellaneous events, disasters, fairs, and holidays will also be useful.

Institutions

Family including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families can be examined. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and particular schools will also be examined. Economics including industries and companies will be significant. Economic activity including production, distribution and exchange, and consumption will be significant. Economic systems including firms, networks, types of systems, and system behavior can be examined. Government will be useful. Law including tribal law, Asiatic law, Western law, and international law can be considered. Government structure including political parties,judicial cystems, legistlative systems, executive systems, head of government, and forms of government will be useful. Government activity including administration, succession, and state relations will be useful. particular governments including local, and national governments will be useful. International governments included principally traditional and colonial empires. Religion including religious belief, practice, organization, and particular traditions will also be useful. Abrahamic religion including Islam, and Judaism can be discussied. Christianity including Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox varieties can also be discussed. Asiatic religion including Persian, Indian, and Oriental varieties is useful. Pagan religion including Eeuropean pagan, Asiatic pagan, African pagan, and American Indian pagan religion can be discussed. Secularism can be discussed.

Sociology

Social structure and change is highly significant. Social structure including anthropological structure, cultural structure, institutional structure, class structure, and community and regional structurre will be important. Social types include hunting and gathering, horticultural, agrarian, and early industrial societies. Social change including social change factors will be significant. Social change processes include innovation, transmissin, adaptation, and extinction. Particular changes and movements include the agricultural revolution, the agrarian revolution and early stages of the industrial revolution.

Communities will also be developed. Major cities include Istanbul, Lagos, Shenzhen, Canto, Paris, Chicago

Peoples of the world are highly important. Particular nations are discussed under the peoles they belong to. [Recently connected nations include Morocco, Canada, Algeria, Afghanistan, Peru, Nepal, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Venezuela, Malaysia, North Korea, Taiwan,]

Western civilization began to become noticeably prominent. Nations include Poland. Cities include London. Anglic peoples including Anglo-American were significant, and Anglo-Australian peoples may also have been established in this century. The UK was among the more important nations of the world. The United States (which became independent) was not yet prominent. Cities include New York City. Latin peoples include Argentina. Cities include Rio de Janeiro. Among Italic peoples, Italy was divided. Among French peoples, France had something of a Colonial empire. Hispanic peoples were significant. The empire centered in Spain began to decline. Buenos Aires grew as a city. Among Hispanic Mexican peoples, Mexico grew as a Spanish colony with its city of Mexico City. Los Angeles was founded as a city. Hispanic Colombian America including Colombia grew as a Spanish colony. Lusitanic peoples including Brazil (which remained a Portuguese colony) with its city of Sao Paulo are important. Northeast European peoples such as those of Russia (which became an important European power) are significant. Ukraine is also significant. Cities include Moscow. Germanic peoples such as those of Germany (where Prussia and Austria were contending for influence) were also important. Balkan and Scandinavian poples were also important.

Asiatic peoples may be considered. These nations include Myanmar. Cities include Tehran. The Middle East was beginning to experience stronger European influence, with nations such as Britain, France, and Russia becoming involved in its affairs. It includes nations such as Egypt (which was under Ottoman Rule) Turkey and Iran. Cities include Cairo. In South Asia, India (where the British were expanding their holdings), Bombay.Delhi.Calcutta. Pakistan (which was invaded and occupied by Afghans) with its city of Karachi which was founded, and Bangladesh (Where the British came to rule) were increasingly coming under European control. Cities include Dacca. In the Orient, China (where the Qing dynasty reached its height) included Shanghai and was indifferent to Europe. Japan (which kept itself isolated from Western contact) included the cities of Tokyo and Osaka. I have little information on South Korea. Cities include Seoul and Beijing. I have little information on Southeast Asia, including nations such Indonesia (which was ruled by the Dutch East Asia company or VOC) with cities of Jakarta. It also includes the Philippines (which was ruled by the Spanish), Vietnam (Mostly under Chinese rule), and Thailand. Cities include Manila. Central Asia began to come under Chinese and Russian rule.

African peoples are not well known in this period. South Africa is not well known. East African peoples such as those of Ethiopia are not well known. Sudan is not well known. West African peoples such as those of Nigeria are not well known. Central African peoples including those of Congo are not well known.

American Indian peoples are not yet as well known. Nations related to them include Argentina. Meso-american peoples such as those of Mexico (which remained a Spanish colony) are significant. South American peoples such as those in Brazil (which remained a Portuguese colony), Colombia (A Spanish colony) and North American Indians include those of the United States (which began to deal with the Indians independently).

Other History

Prehistory, antiquity, and classical and medieval history are not as directly useful to this period as more recent history is. Events of his period overlap with the 17th century at the early end.

Events of this period are continued in the 19th century , particularly in the early 19th century, and continued to have direct influence in the early mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 19th century. Studies are continued in the 20th century. The early 20th, early mid 20th, mid 20th, and late mid 20th centuries all have information. In the late 20th century, studies have continued with the early 1980s, late 1980s, early 1990s, and late 1990s. They also continue into the early 21st century and early 2000s and late 2000s.

They will also be continued into the future, including the early future, middle future, and far future.

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