18th Century


The 18th century is noted for the continuing spread and influence of Western civilization. Religious warfare declined, and rational secular philosophy began to have a major influence in society, and Western technology continued to progress. Struggles between the nations of Europe were reflected in the change of administration of colonial posessions, which continued to increase as missionaries, traders, and settlers from Europe were backed by military force. The older civilizations of Asia were increasingly forced to deal with the seagoing powers of Europe.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience History Modern History Early 18th century Early-mid 18th century Mid 18th century Late-mid 18th century Late 18th century

The 18th century is noted for the continuing spread and influence of Western civilization. Religious warfare declined, and rational secular philosophy began to have a major influence in society, and Western technology continued to progress. Struggles between the nations of Europe were reflected in the change of administration of colonial posessions, which continued to increase as missionaries, traders, and settlers from Europe were backed by military force. The older civilizations of Asia were increasingly forced to deal with the seagoing powers of Europe.

Early 18th Century (1701- 1720)

Bach was an important musical composer. Peter the Great proclaimed himself tsar of Russia and pursued a vigorous moernization and expansion program.

Early mid 18th Century (1721 - 1740)

Voltaire began writing as an author and social critic. Euler began working in mathematics. Franklin began to establish his reputation as a printer, inventor, scientist, and civic leader.

Middle 18th Century (1741 - 1760)

Voltaire continued writing as an author and social critic. Euiler continued his work in mathematics. Franklin continued to establish his reputation as a printer, inventor, scientist, and civic leader. Rosseau discussed important concepts in political philosophy.

Late mid 18th Century (1761 - 1780)

Watt began work on the steam engine, while Lavoisier began work experiments in chemistry. The British defeated the French and took conrol of the French colonies in what is now Canada. Tensions between Britain and the American colonies arose, resulting in the outbreak of warfare. The colonies declared their independence and named George Washington as commander-in-chief.

Late 18th Century (1781 - 1800)

The chemist Lavoisier was instrumental in founding modern Chemistry, while Watt continue to improve the steam engine. Jenner introduced vaccination as a means to prevent smallpox. The American revolution ended and independence was granted by Great Britain. After a period of weak government, the US Constitution was adopted, with George Washington as first President of the United States. The success of the American Revolution helped inspire a French Revolution.


Other History Prehistory Early prehistory including the Pliocene, early Pleistocene, early mid Pleistocene, mid pleistocene, and late Pleistocene is not as directly useful to this period as more recent history is. Middle prehistory including the 5th decamillennium BP, 4th decamillennium BP, 3rd decamillennium BP, 2nd decamillennium BP, and 1st decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory including the early 8th millennium BC, late 8th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, late 7th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, and late 7th millennium BC can be connected.	Links to other sites: Eighteenth Century Resources - History Eighteenth Century History - The Age of Reason and Change
Antiquity The 5th millennium BC including the early 5th millennium BC, early mid 5th millennium BC, mid 5th millennium BC, late mid 5th millennium BC, and late 5th millennium BC can be connected. The 4th millennium BC including the early 4th millennium BC, early mid 4th millennium BC, mid 4th millennium BC, late mid 4th millennium BC, and late 4th millennium BC can be connected. The 3rd millennium BC including the early 3rd millennium BC, early mid 3rd millennium BC, mid 3rd millennium BC, late mid 3rd millennium BC, and late 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The 2nd millennium BC including the early 2nd millennium BC, early mid 2nd millennium BC, mid 2nd millennium BC, late mid 2nd millennium BC, and late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The early 1st millennium BC including the 10th century BC, 9th century BC, 8th century BC, 7th century BC, and 6th century BC can be connected. Classical and medieval history Classical and medieval history offers a great deal of background and cultural material to the 18th century. Early classical times including the 5th century BC, 4th century BC, 3rd century BC, 2nd century BC, and 1st century BC can be connected. Late classical times including the 1st century CE, 2nd century CE, 3rd century CE, 4th century CE, and 5th century CE can be connected, Early medieval times including the 6th century, 7th century, 8th century, 9th century, and 10th century can be connected. Late medieval times including the 11th century, 12th century, 13th century, 14th century, and 15th century can be connected. Modern History The 16th century including the early 16th century, early mid 16th century, mid 16th century, late mid 16th century, and late 16th century can be connected. Events of his period overlap with the 17th century at the early end. The early 17th century, early mid 17th century, mid 17th century, late-mid 17th century, and late 17th century can be considered. Events of this period are continued in the 19th century , particularly in the early 19th century, and continued to have direct influence in the early mid 19th century. The mid 19th century including the early 1840s, late 1840s, early 1850s, and late 1850s can be connected. The late mid 19th century including the early 1860s, late 1860s, early 1870s, and late 1870s can be connected. The late 19th century including the early 1880s, late 1880s, early 1890s, and late 1890s can be connected. 20th century The early 20th century including the early 1900s, late 1900s, early 1910s, and late 1910s can be connected. The early mid 20th century including the early 1920s, late 1920s, early 1930s, and late 1930s can be connected. The mid 20th century including the early 1940s, late 1940s, early 1950s, and late 1950s can be connected. In the late mid 20th century, the early 1960s, late 1960s, early 1970s, late 1970s can be considered. In the late 20th century, studies have continued with the early 1980s and late 1980s. The early 1990s including 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995 can be connected. The late 1990s including 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, and 2000 can be connected. Early 21st The early 2000s including 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 can be connected. Studies in the late 2000s including 2006, 2007, and 2008 can be connected. 2009 including the first quarter 2009, second quarter 2009, third quarter 2009, and fourth quarter 2009 can be connected. 2010 including the first quarter 2010, second quarter 2010, and third quarter 2010 can be considered. The early 2010s can be connected. 2011 can be connected. The first quarter 2011 can be connected. January 2011 including 2011 week 1, 2011 week 2, 2011 week 3, 2011 week 4, 2011 week 5, and 2011 week 6 can be connected. February 2011 and March 2011 can be connected. The second quarter 2011 including April 2011, May 2011, and June 2011 can be connected. The third quarter 2011 and fourth quarter 2011 can be connected. Future The near future including next month can be connected. Next quarter, and next year can be connected. The middle future including the next 5 years, next 20 years, next century, and next 5 centuries can possibly be connected. The far future including the next 2 millennia, next 10,000 years, next 200,000 years, next million years, and beyond the next million years can be examined. Sociology As with history in general and modern history, the examination of peoples of the world, communities, and social structure and change, gives weight and substance to 18th century history. Institutions Institutions including religion, government, economics, education, and families can be applied to examination of the early 18th century, early mid 18th century, mid 18th century, late mid 18th century, and late 18th century. Culture Behavioral culture, conceptual culture, and material culture can be applied to examination of the 18th century. Behavioral culture Cultural events such as miscellaneous events, disasters, fairs, and holidays can be considered. Recreation and entertainment including the music, dance, theater, sports, and games can be identified. Occupations including food related, building related, transportation related, communications related, industrial, and service occupations are important. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling customs, dress and adornment, social interaction, and institutional customs are useful. Conceptual culture Philosophy including logic, epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics, particular topics, and schools and doctrines may be useful. Applied science including applied social science, accounting, information and computing science, medical science, navigation, engineering science, and measurement can be connected. Mathematics including statistics, geometry, analysis, algebra, arithmetic, and mathematical foundations can be considered. Literature including oral tradition, forms, types and genres, and literary works is important. Graphic arts including drawing, painting, and printmaking developed. Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world will be especially useful. Material culture Miscellaneous artifacts including sculpture, musical instruments, toys, and medicines can be considered. Communication technology including electronic communication, graphic communication, and written communication can be considered. Transportation technology including water transportation, land transporation, and packaging can be connected. Clothing including such things as adornment, garments, and textiles and fabrics can be connected. Foodstuffs including agricultural products, processed and preserved foods, and prepared foods can be considered. Building technology including outdoor structures, complete buildings, furnishings, building components, and materials can be connected. Industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machinery, utilities, and other technology will be significant. Anthropology Particular groups Particular groups existing in this period include: American Academy of Arts and Sciences Royal Society Particular groups that have made a study of this period include: World History Association Human geography European geography including Balkan geography, Italian geography, Iberian geography, Eastern european geography, Central European geography, Island geography, and Scandinavian geography can be connected. Asian geography including Southwest Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and North Asia will be useful. African geography including North Africa, East Africa, West Africa, North Central Africa, South Central Africal, and Southern Africa can be connected. North American geography including Northern North America, middle North America, and southern North America can be connected. South American geography can be connected. Oceanic geography can be connected. Human ecology Human effects on the environment can be connected. Interactions with other life can be connected. Environmental effects on people can be connected. Physical anthropology Human dispersion can be connected. Racial variation can be connected. Human origins can be connected. Demography Population change can be connected. Population size and structure can be connected. Mortality and morbidity can be connected. Migration can be connected. Birth and fertility can be connected. Social foundations Social group behavior can be connected. Social group types can be connected. Social control can be connected. Social interaction can be connected. Social presentation can be connected. Personal studies Biography Biograhy can be applied. The most prominent individuals who lived at least partly in this century are mentioned in the particular 20 year periods. Psychology Social psychology can be connected. Personality can be connected. Mental disorders can be connected. Developmental psychology can be connected. Behavior patterns can be connected. Mind can be connected. Behavioral elements can be connected. Human body Form and appearance can be connected. The human life cycle can be connected. Disease can be connected. Body function can be connected. Body systems can be connected. Science Biology Biohistory including the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras might be connected. Ecology including biogreography, ecosystems, evolution, systems ecology, community ecology, population ecology, and behavioral ecology can be connected. Systematics including animals, fungi, plants, protists, and microbes can be connected. Organism biology including behavior, life cycle, form, organ systems, tissues, and habitat can be connected. Cell biology including cell behavior, cell types, and cell anatomy can be considered. Molecular biology including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, small organics, and inorganics was unknown in the 18th century but can be applied. Earth science Geohistory including the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras might be connected. Physical geography including mapping, oceanic geography, and terrestrial geography might be connected. Atmospheric science including climatology, meteorology, and atmospheric structure can be connected. Hydrospheric science including the oceans, glaciers, groundwater, and fresh water can be connected. Geology including interior geology, geological processes, landforms, petrology, and mineralogy can be connected. Astronomy including cosmology, galactic astronomy, stellar astronomy, and local astronomy may be applicable. Chemistry including chemical systems, chemical change, and chemical substances can be considered. Physics including the structure of matter, electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and mechanics might be applied.

Other History

Prehistory

Early prehistory including the Pliocene, early Pleistocene, early mid Pleistocene, mid pleistocene, and late Pleistocene is not as directly useful to this period as more recent history is. Middle prehistory including the 5th decamillennium BP, 4th decamillennium BP, 3rd decamillennium BP, 2nd decamillennium BP, and 1st decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory including the early 8th millennium BC, late 8th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, late 7th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, and late 7th millennium BC can be connected.

Links to other sites:

Antiquity

The 5th millennium BC including the early 5th millennium BC, early mid 5th millennium BC, mid 5th millennium BC, late mid 5th millennium BC, and late 5th millennium BC can be connected. The 4th millennium BC including the early 4th millennium BC, early mid 4th millennium BC, mid 4th millennium BC, late mid 4th millennium BC, and late 4th millennium BC can be connected. The 3rd millennium BC including the early 3rd millennium BC, early mid 3rd millennium BC, mid 3rd millennium BC, late mid 3rd millennium BC, and late 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The 2nd millennium BC including the early 2nd millennium BC, early mid 2nd millennium BC, mid 2nd millennium BC, late mid 2nd millennium BC, and late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. The early 1st millennium BC including the 10th century BC, 9th century BC, 8th century BC, 7th century BC, and 6th century BC can be connected.

Classical and medieval history

Classical and medieval history offers a great deal of background and cultural material to the 18th century.

Early classical times including the 5th century BC, 4th century BC, 3rd century BC, 2nd century BC, and 1st century BC can be connected. Late classical times including the 1st century CE, 2nd century CE, 3rd century CE, 4th century CE, and 5th century CE can be connected, Early medieval times including the 6th century, 7th century, 8th century, 9th century, and 10th century can be connected. Late medieval times including the 11th century, 12th century, 13th century, 14th century, and 15th century can be connected.

Modern History

The 16th century including the early 16th century, early mid 16th century, mid 16th century, late mid 16th century, and late 16th century can be connected. Events of his period overlap with the 17th century at the early end. The early 17th century, early mid 17th century, mid 17th century, late-mid 17th century, and late 17th century can be considered.

Events of this period are continued in the 19th century , particularly in the early 19th century, and continued to have direct influence in the early mid 19th century. The mid 19th century including the early 1840s, late 1840s, early 1850s, and late 1850s can be connected. The late mid 19th century including the early 1860s, late 1860s, early 1870s, and late 1870s can be connected. The late 19th century including the early 1880s, late 1880s, early 1890s, and late 1890s can be connected.

20th century

The early 20th century including the early 1900s, late 1900s, early 1910s, and late 1910s can be connected. The early mid 20th century including the early 1920s, late 1920s, early 1930s, and late 1930s can be connected. The mid 20th century including the early 1940s, late 1940s, early 1950s, and late 1950s can be connected. In the late mid 20th century, the early 1960s, late 1960s, early 1970s, late 1970s can be considered.

In the late 20th century, studies have continued with the early 1980s and late 1980s. The early 1990s including 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995 can be connected. The late 1990s including 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, and 2000 can be connected.

Early 21st

The early 2000s including 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 can be connected.

Studies in the late 2000s including 2006, 2007, and 2008 can be connected. 2009 including the first quarter 2009, second quarter 2009, third quarter 2009, and fourth quarter 2009 can be connected. 2010 including the first quarter 2010, second quarter 2010, and third quarter 2010 can be considered.

The early 2010s can be connected. 2011 can be connected. The first quarter 2011 can be connected. January 2011 including 2011 week 1, 2011 week 2, 2011 week 3, 2011 week 4, 2011 week 5, and 2011 week 6 can be connected. February 2011 and March 2011 can be connected. The second quarter 2011 including April 2011, May 2011, and June 2011 can be connected. The third quarter 2011 and fourth quarter 2011 can be connected.

Future

The near future including next month can be connected. Next quarter, and next year can be connected. The middle future including the next 5 years, next 20 years, next century, and next 5 centuries can possibly be connected. The far future including the next 2 millennia, next 10,000 years, next 200,000 years, next million years, and beyond the next million years can be examined.

Sociology

As with history in general and modern history, the examination of peoples of the world, communities, and social structure and change, gives weight and substance to 18th century history.

Institutions

Institutions including religion, government, economics, education, and families can be applied to examination of the early 18th century, early mid 18th century, mid 18th century, late mid 18th century, and late 18th century.

Culture

Behavioral culture, conceptual culture, and material culture can be applied to examination of the 18th century.

Behavioral culture

Cultural events such as miscellaneous events, disasters, fairs, and holidays can be considered. Recreation and entertainment including the music, dance, theater, sports, and games can be identified. Occupations including food related, building related, transportation related, communications related, industrial, and service occupations are important. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling customs, dress and adornment, social interaction, and institutional customs are useful.

Conceptual culture

Philosophy including logic, epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics, particular topics, and schools and doctrines may be useful. Applied science including applied social science, accounting, information and computing science, medical science, navigation, engineering science, and measurement can be connected. Mathematics including statistics, geometry, analysis, algebra, arithmetic, and mathematical foundations can be considered. Literature including oral tradition, forms, types and genres, and literary works is important. Graphic arts including drawing, painting, and printmaking developed. Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world will be especially useful.

Material culture

Miscellaneous artifacts including sculpture, musical instruments, toys, and medicines can be considered. Communication technology including electronic communication, graphic communication, and written communication can be considered. Transportation technology including water transportation, land transporation, and packaging can be connected. Clothing including such things as adornment, garments, and textiles and fabrics can be connected. Foodstuffs including agricultural products, processed and preserved foods, and prepared foods can be considered. Building technology including outdoor structures, complete buildings, furnishings, building components, and materials can be connected. Industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machinery, utilities, and other technology will be significant.

Anthropology

Particular groups

Particular groups existing in this period include:

Particular groups that have made a study of this period include:

World History Association

Human geography

European geography including Balkan geography, Italian geography, Iberian geography, Eastern european geography, Central European geography, Island geography, and Scandinavian geography can be connected. Asian geography including Southwest Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and North Asia will be useful. African geography including North Africa, East Africa, West Africa, North Central Africa, South Central Africal, and Southern Africa can be connected. North American geography including Northern North America, middle North America, and southern North America can be connected. South American geography can be connected. Oceanic geography can be connected.

Human ecology

Human effects on the environment can be connected. Interactions with other life can be connected. Environmental effects on people can be connected.

Physical anthropology

Human dispersion can be connected. Racial variation can be connected. Human origins can be connected.

Demography

Population change can be connected. Population size and structure can be connected. Mortality and morbidity can be connected. Migration can be connected. Birth and fertility can be connected.

Social foundations

Social group behavior can be connected. Social group types can be connected. Social control can be connected. Social interaction can be connected. Social presentation can be connected.

Personal studies

Biography

Biograhy can be applied. The most prominent individuals who lived at least partly in this century are mentioned in the particular 20 year periods.

Psychology

Social psychology can be connected. Personality can be connected. Mental disorders can be connected. Developmental psychology can be connected. Behavior patterns can be connected. Mind can be connected. Behavioral elements can be connected.

Human body

Form and appearance can be connected. The human life cycle can be connected. Disease can be connected. Body function can be connected. Body systems can be connected.

Science

Biology

Biohistory including the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras might be connected. Ecology including biogreography, ecosystems, evolution, systems ecology, community ecology, population ecology, and behavioral ecology can be connected. Systematics including animals, fungi, plants, protists, and microbes can be connected. Organism biology including behavior, life cycle, form, organ systems, tissues, and habitat can be connected. Cell biology including cell behavior, cell types, and cell anatomy can be considered. Molecular biology including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, small organics, and inorganics was unknown in the 18th century but can be applied.

Earth science

Geohistory including the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras might be connected. Physical geography including mapping, oceanic geography, and terrestrial geography might be connected. Atmospheric science including climatology, meteorology, and atmospheric structure can be connected. Hydrospheric science including the oceans, glaciers, groundwater, and fresh water can be connected. Geology including interior geology, geological processes, landforms, petrology, and mineralogy can be connected.

Astronomy including cosmology, galactic astronomy, stellar astronomy, and local astronomy may be applicable. Chemistry including chemical systems, chemical change, and chemical substances can be considered. Physics including the structure of matter, electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and mechanics might be applied.

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