16th Century


The 16th century is noted for the beginnings of the expansion of Western civilization. In Europe, the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, the opening of sea routes to India and China, and the discovery of the New World of the Americas changed the world.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience History Modern History Early 16th century Early-mid 16th century Mid 16th century Late-mid 16th century Late 16th century

The 16th century is noted for the beginnings of the expansion of Western civilization. In Europe, the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, the opening of sea routes to India and China, and the discovery of the New World of the Americas changed the world.

Early 16th century (1501-1520)

The Portuguese established control of the Indian Ocean. The Spanich began their conquest of Mexico. Magellan's expedition was the first circumnavigation of the world. Martin Luther's work began the Protestant freformation.

Early-mid 16th century (1521-1540)

Da Gama made his third voyage to India. Pizarro began the conquest of Latin America. Calvin became a leading figure in the Reformation.

Mid 16th century (1541-1560)

Copernicus published his work on Heliocentric astronomy. Elizabeth I ascended to the throne of England

Late-mid 16th century (1561-1580)

Elizabeth confirmed England as a Protestant nation, in opposition to Spain as an important Catholic power.

Late 16th century (1581-1600)

Shakespeare began writing his plays.


The 16th century is connected rather indirectly to science including physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth science, and biology.	Links to other sites: Not yet included
Personal studies are useful, not so much for studies of the human body or psychology, but for biographies. Some prominent individuals who lived at least partly during the 16th century include: Columbus Copernicus Galileo Luther Shakespeare Cromwell Descartes Michelangelo Harvey Calvin Pizarro Cortez Isabella Kepler Machiavelli da Gama Bacon Elizabeth I Magellan da Vinci Anthropology including social foundations and demography will also be useful. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion can be considered. Human ecology including environmental effects on people, relations with other life, and human effect on the environment is significant. Human geography including European geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography will be useful. Asian geography including Southwest Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and North Asia will be useful. Particular groups may be useful. Culture Material culture such as clothing, buildings, transportation devices, communication devices, technology, and other artifacts are important. Industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machines, utilities, and other technoloogy is useful. Foodstuffs including acricultural products, preserved and processed foods, and prepared foods can be considered. Conceptual culture including literature, mathematics, applied science, and philosophy is also significant. Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world is important. Graphic arts including painting, drawing, and printmaking can be examined. Behavioral culture including performing arts, games, and sports will also be important. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling customs, dress and adornment, social interaction, and institutional customs are important. Occupations including food-related, building related, transportation related, communication, industrial, and service related are significant. Recreation and entertainment including music, dance, theater, games, and sports is also useful. Cultural events including miscellaneous events, disasters, fairs, and holidays can also be considered. Institutions Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families are significant to the 16th century. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and particular schools will be useful. Economics including industries, economic systems, and companies will be useful in examining this period. Economic activity including production, distribution and exchange, and consumption can be considered. Government including law, government activity, and government organization is also vital. Particular governments including local, national, and international can also be considered. Religion, including religious beliefs, practices, and organization including unstructured, fragmented, and highly structured varieties is also needed. Particular traditions are also valuable. Secularist traditions are valuable. Abrahamic religion including Islam, and Judaism expanded during this period. Christianity split again, as the Protestant Reformation divided the Cathoic church into Catholic and Protestant traditions. Orthodoxy progressed somewhat. Asiatic religion including Persian, Indian, and Oriental traditions was also important. Pagan religion including Asiatic pagan, European Pagan, African pagan, and american Indian pagan religion continued. Sociology Social structure and change is highly significant. Social structure including anthropological structure, cultural structure, institutional structure, classes, and regional and community structure are important. Social types include some of hunting and gathering, horticultural, and agrarian societies. Social change including factors of change and processes will be very useful. Particular changes such as the industrial revolution and agrarian revolution can be connected. Communities will also be useful. [Tehran, London, Istanbul] Peoples of the world are essential. These can be examined by first looking at particular nations. Westerm civilization began to become prominent in this period, but for the most part was ignored by Asiatic peoples. Those nations with significant historical content are listed below under the peoples they belong to. [ Argentina, Poland, Morocco, Canada, Algeria, Afghanistan can be considered. Western Civilization including Balkan and Scandinavian peoples will be highly significant. Spain became the richest, most powerful country in Europe as it plundered treasurs of the Aztec and Inca empires, and was a staunch supporter of the Catholic church during the Reformation. Rio de Janeiro was founded. Among Anglic peoples, the United Kingdom included religious controversy, and the English began exploration of North America. The earliest settlements began to include colonies in what is now the United States (though none of the colonies founded in this period survived). Latin peoples expanded considerably. Colombia was settled by the Spanish. Buenos Aires was founded by the Spanish. Among Italic peoples, Italy was divided. Among French peoples, France was divided by the Protestant reformation, but began explorations of North America. Among Hispanic peoples, Mexico was conquered and colonized by the Spanish. The Aztec city of Tenochtitlan was destroyed and rebuilt as Mexico City. Among Lusitanic peoples, Brazil began to be settled.Sao Paulo was founded. Northeast Europeans including those of Russia (which began to expand eastward across Siberia) and Ukraine, which was part of the kingdom of Poland can be identified. Cities include Moscow, for which I have no particular details. Germanic peoples include Germany (which was the site of much conflict as the principal seat of the Protestant Reformation). Asiatic peoples including Central Asian peoples will also be useful. Several of these were contacted by the Portuguese. Nations include Myanmar. I have no details of Beijing. In the Middle East, Egypt was ruled by the Ottoman Empire. Turkey was the center of the Ottoman Empire, though I have no specific details for it. I lack specific details on Iran, then known as Persia. I have no details on the development of Cairo. South Asian peoples can be examined. In India, the Mughal empire was beginning. I have no details on the development of Delhi. Pakistan (which was included in the Mughal empire) and Bangladesh (Where the Mughal empire had some influence) were important. I have no details on the development of Dacca. Oriental peoples are significant. In China the Ming dynasty was in decline. I have no details on the development of Shanghai. Japan (which was first contacted by Europeans) is also significant. South Korea is somewhat important. I lack details for Tokyo. I lack details for Seoul. I have no details on the development of Osaka. Southeast Asia, including Indonesia (Where the Portuguese began to set up trading posts). I have no details on the development of Jakarta. Philippines (which began to come under Spanish rule) also began to become significant. There is also Vietnam (for which I have no details). I lack specific details on Thailand, except that the Portuguese and Dutch began trading there. Manila was founded by the Spanish. African peoples are not as well known. Information on Sudan is scanty. Peoples of Western Africa (So far including those of Nigeria) are not well known. Peoples of Eastern Africa including Ethiopia are also not yet well known. I have no details for Central Africa including Congo. In Southern Africa, I have no details for South Africa, except that Europeans regularly sailed past en route to the Indies. American Indian peoples can be examined through national histories of such nations as Colombia are not as well known as others. The Aztec city of Tenochtitlan was destroyed and rebuilt as Mexico City. Meso-American peoples as found in Mexico can be examined. South American Indians found in Brazil and North American Indians found in the United States can be examined. Other history The 16th Century is preceded by classical and medieval history, in particular late medieval history, and most directly by the 15th century. This century is followed by the 17th century, including the early 17th century. It has also been examined in the 18th century, 19th century including the early 19th century, early mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 20th century. Also the 20th century, including the early 20th century, early-mid 20th century, mid 20th century, late-mid 20th century, and late 20th century. Studies of it are conducted in the early 21st century including the early 2000s and late 2000s. Studies of it can be expected in the future, possibly including the near future, middle future, and far future.

The 16th century is connected rather indirectly to science including physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth science, and biology.

Links to other sites:
Not yet included

Personal studies are useful, not so much for studies of the human body or psychology, but for biographies. Some prominent individuals who lived at least partly during the 16th century include:

Anthropology including social foundations and demography will also be useful. Physical anthropology including human origins, racial variation, and human dispersion can be considered. Human ecology including environmental effects on people, relations with other life, and human effect on the environment is significant. Human geography including European geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography will be useful. Asian geography including Southwest Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and North Asia will be useful. Particular groups may be useful.

Culture

Material culture such as clothing, buildings, transportation devices, communication devices, technology, and other artifacts are important. Industrial technology including tools, fuels, chemical technology, machines, utilities, and other technoloogy is useful. Foodstuffs including acricultural products, preserved and processed foods, and prepared foods can be considered.

Conceptual culture including literature, mathematics, applied science, and philosophy is also significant. Language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world is important. Graphic arts including painting, drawing, and printmaking can be examined.

Behavioral culture including performing arts, games, and sports will also be important. Customs including vital customs, living and dwelling customs, dress and adornment, social interaction, and institutional customs are important. Occupations including food-related, building related, transportation related, communication, industrial, and service related are significant. Recreation and entertainment including music, dance, theater, games, and sports is also useful. Cultural events including miscellaneous events, disasters, fairs, and holidays can also be considered.

Institutions

Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families are significant to the 16th century. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and particular schools will be useful. Economics including industries, economic systems, and companies will be useful in examining this period. Economic activity including production, distribution and exchange, and consumption can be considered. Government including law, government activity, and government organization is also vital. Particular governments including local, national, and international can also be considered. Religion, including religious beliefs, practices, and organization including unstructured, fragmented, and highly structured varieties is also needed. Particular traditions are also valuable. Secularist traditions are valuable. Abrahamic religion including Islam, and Judaism expanded during this period. Christianity split again, as the Protestant Reformation divided the Cathoic church into Catholic and Protestant traditions. Orthodoxy progressed somewhat. Asiatic religion including Persian, Indian, and Oriental traditions was also important. Pagan religion including Asiatic pagan, European Pagan, African pagan, and american Indian pagan religion continued.

Sociology

Social structure and change is highly significant. Social structure including anthropological structure, cultural structure, institutional structure, classes, and regional and community structure are important. Social types include some of hunting and gathering, horticultural, and agrarian societies. Social change including factors of change and processes will be very useful. Particular changes such as the industrial revolution and agrarian revolution can be connected.

Communities will also be useful. [Tehran, London, Istanbul]

Peoples of the world are essential. These can be examined by first looking at particular nations. Westerm civilization began to become prominent in this period, but for the most part was ignored by Asiatic peoples. Those nations with significant historical content are listed below under the peoples they belong to. [ Argentina, Poland, Morocco, Canada, Algeria, Afghanistan can be considered.

Western Civilization including Balkan and Scandinavian peoples will be highly significant. Spain became the richest, most powerful country in Europe as it plundered treasurs of the Aztec and Inca empires, and was a staunch supporter of the Catholic church during the Reformation. Rio de Janeiro was founded. Among Anglic peoples, the United Kingdom included religious controversy, and the English began exploration of North America. The earliest settlements began to include colonies in what is now the United States (though none of the colonies founded in this period survived). Latin peoples expanded considerably. Colombia was settled by the Spanish. Buenos Aires was founded by the Spanish. Among Italic peoples, Italy was divided. Among French peoples, France was divided by the Protestant reformation, but began explorations of North America. Among Hispanic peoples, Mexico was conquered and colonized by the Spanish. The Aztec city of Tenochtitlan was destroyed and rebuilt as Mexico City. Among Lusitanic peoples, Brazil began to be settled.Sao Paulo was founded. Northeast Europeans including those of Russia (which began to expand eastward across Siberia) and Ukraine, which was part of the kingdom of Poland can be identified. Cities include Moscow, for which I have no particular details. Germanic peoples include Germany (which was the site of much conflict as the principal seat of the Protestant Reformation).

Asiatic peoples including Central Asian peoples will also be useful. Several of these were contacted by the Portuguese. Nations include Myanmar. I have no details of Beijing. In the Middle East, Egypt was ruled by the Ottoman Empire. Turkey was the center of the Ottoman Empire, though I have no specific details for it. I lack specific details on Iran, then known as Persia. I have no details on the development of Cairo. South Asian peoples can be examined. In India, the Mughal empire was beginning. I have no details on the development of Delhi. Pakistan (which was included in the Mughal empire) and Bangladesh (Where the Mughal empire had some influence) were important. I have no details on the development of Dacca. Oriental peoples are significant. In China the Ming dynasty was in decline. I have no details on the development of Shanghai. Japan (which was first contacted by Europeans) is also significant. South Korea is somewhat important. I lack details for Tokyo. I lack details for Seoul. I have no details on the development of Osaka. Southeast Asia, including Indonesia (Where the Portuguese began to set up trading posts). I have no details on the development of Jakarta. Philippines (which began to come under Spanish rule) also began to become significant. There is also Vietnam (for which I have no details). I lack specific details on Thailand, except that the Portuguese and Dutch began trading there. Manila was founded by the Spanish.

African peoples are not as well known. Information on Sudan is scanty. Peoples of Western Africa (So far including those of Nigeria) are not well known. Peoples of Eastern Africa including Ethiopia are also not yet well known. I have no details for Central Africa including Congo. In Southern Africa, I have no details for South Africa, except that Europeans regularly sailed past en route to the Indies.

American Indian peoples can be examined through national histories of such nations as Colombia are not as well known as others. The Aztec city of Tenochtitlan was destroyed and rebuilt as Mexico City. Meso-American peoples as found in Mexico can be examined. South American Indians found in Brazil and North American Indians found in the United States can be examined.

Other history

The 16th Century is preceded by classical and medieval history, in particular late medieval history, and most directly by the 15th century.

This century is followed by the 17th century, including the early 17th century. It has also been examined in the 18th century, 19th century including the early 19th century, early mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late-mid 19th century, and late 20th century. Also the 20th century, including the early 20th century, early-mid 20th century, mid 20th century, late-mid 20th century, and late 20th century. Studies of it are conducted in the early 21st century including the early 2000s and late 2000s. Studies of it can be expected in the future, possibly including the near future, middle future, and far future.

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