Philosophy


Philosophy is a difficult subject to define and is closely interconnected with several others. The themes discussed here are overlapping. Major divisions include metaphysics, ethics, esthetics, and epistemology.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience Culture Conceptual Culture Logic Metaphysics Epistemlogy Aesthetics Ethics Special topics Philosophical schools and doctrines

Philosophy is a difficult subject to define and is closely interconnected with several others. The themes discussed here are overlapping.

Major divisions include metaphysics, ethics, esthetics, and epistemology.

Logic
Metaphysics
Epistemlogy
Aesthetics
Ethics
Special topics
Philosophical schools and doctrines

Logic

Epistemology

Metaphysics

Aesthetics

Ethics

Special topics

Cosmology, psychology, anthropology, theology

Philosophical schools and doctrines

These are in part cultural, as in Chinese, Indian, Islamic, and Western. Western can be approximately divided into periods; classical, medieval, and modern.


Philosophy has been strongly affected by science. A number of questions once asked by philosophy have been resolved or at least illuminated by scientific discoveries, while others have been raised. Connections to physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth science, and biology have been useful.
Personal studies are chiefly interesting for biography of particular philosophers, though others are also useful. Psychology and studies of the human body may also be useful. Philosophy is also connected to anthropology including social foundations, demography, physical anthropology, human ecology and human geography. Particular groups may be connected to philosophy. Other Culture Philosophy is only weakly connected to material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation technology, communication technology, and miscellaneous artifacts. It depends heavily on studies of language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world. It does not use graphics much, but is connected to literature. It makes limited use of mathematics and applied science. It may be connected to behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events. Institutions Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families can be connected to philosophy. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and particular schools can be connected. Economics including economic activities, industries, and economic systems has connections to philosophy. Government including law, government structure, government activity, and particular governments has connections to philosophy. Religion including religious belief, practice, organization, and particular religions is fairly closely connected to philosophy. Sociology Connections to social structure and change including social structure and social types can be considered. Social change including factors, processes, and particular changes can be connected. Particular communities such as Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City can be considered. Variants among the different peoples of the world include African peoples. Specific nations such as Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Russia do not yet have much philosophy associated with them. Western civilization, which has the greatest influence, includes contributions from the United States. Asiatic peoples including those of Indonesia have some philosophy associated with them. South Asian peoples such as those of India can be somewhat connected. Oriental peoples including those of China have some connection. American Indian peoples including those found in the United States have made minimal contributions to philosphy. History Philosophy has roots in prehistory, but these can only be clearly identified in antiquity. It is difficult to trace through the 5th millennium BC, 4th millennum bC, 3rd millennium BC, and 2nd millennium BC. It can be identified from the early 1st millennum BC onwards. 551 - 479 BC Confucius writes and teaches in China. He is considered the original author of the "Analects". c. 550 BC Lao-tzu writes and teaches in China, establishing Taoism. He is considered the original author of the "Tao Te Ching". Its origin is associated primarily with classical and medieval history. Developments can be followed through early classical, late classical, early medieval, and late medieval history. c. 428 - c. 346 BC Plato, Greek philosopher. He is credited with founding a school, the "Academy". "Apologia" and "The Republic" are among his better known works. 384 - 322 BC Aristotle, Greek philosopher and scientist. He is credited with founding a schoo, the "Lyceum". Among his better known works are "Ethics", "Politics", and "Poetics". c. 386 - 430 CE. Augustine converts to Christianity and writes his "Confessions" and "The City of God". Philosophy has significant modern development. The 16th century saw a revolution in natural philosophy, which developed into modern science. 1513 Machiavelli publishes "The Prince", an influential work on political philosophy and practice. 1543 Copernicus publishes a heliocentric (sun-centered) theory of astronomy. c. 1586-c 1637 Galileo makes important discoveries in physics and astronomy. There were more developments in the 17th century. c. 1603-c. 1621 Bacon writes and publishes influential work on natural philosophy and scientific method. 1637 - 1649 Descartes publishes works on philosophy and mathematics. c. 1665-1704 Newton develops and publishes his theories of physics and astronomy, which have a profound influence on philosophy. c. 1689 Locke publishes his "Essay on Human Understanding", a major influence on science and on political theory. The 18th century developments in philosophy are sometimes known as the Enlightenment. 1717-1758. Voltaire becomes a noted author and social critic. 1750-1762. Rousseau introduces influential ideas in political philosophy. 1776 Jefferson authors Declaration of Independence. 1776 Adam Smith publishes "Wealth of Nations", an examination of free market-based economics. Philosophies of the 19th century developed into ideologies and were put into practice. 1848 Marx publishes the Communist Manifesto 1859 Darwin publishes his "Origin of Species" 1867 Marx publishes "Das Kapital" 1871 Darwin publishes his "Descent of Man" 1895 - 1898 Freud publishes work on psychoanalysis and dream interpretation. In the 20th century, philosophy has become more technical and less accessible to nonspecialists. Details of the early 20th century are not well known. The early mid 20th century, the mid 20th century, the late mid 20th century, and the late 20th century can all be examined. 1905 Einstein publishes four papers in theoretical physics with profound theoretical consequences. 1905 Freud publishes his theories of sexuality and its influence on psychological development. 1913 - 1930 Freud extends his psychoanalytic theories to the study of society. In the early 21st century including the early 2000s and late 2000s, more details can be examined. Its future has not yet been examined.

Philosophy has been strongly affected by science. A number of questions once asked by philosophy have been resolved or at least illuminated by scientific discoveries, while others have been raised. Connections to physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth science, and biology have been useful.

Personal studies are chiefly interesting for biography of particular philosophers, though others are also useful. Psychology and studies of the human body may also be useful.

Philosophy is also connected to anthropology including social foundations, demography, physical anthropology, human ecology and human geography. Particular groups may be connected to philosophy.

Other Culture

Philosophy is only weakly connected to material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation technology, communication technology, and miscellaneous artifacts. It depends heavily on studies of language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world. It does not use graphics much, but is connected to literature. It makes limited use of mathematics and applied science. It may be connected to behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events.

Institutions

Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families can be connected to philosophy. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and particular schools can be connected. Economics including economic activities, industries, and economic systems has connections to philosophy. Government including law, government structure, government activity, and particular governments has connections to philosophy. Religion including religious belief, practice, organization, and particular religions is fairly closely connected to philosophy.

Sociology

Connections to social structure and change including social structure and social types can be considered. Social change including factors, processes, and particular changes can be connected.

Particular communities such as Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City can be considered.

Variants among the different peoples of the world include African peoples. Specific nations such as Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Russia do not yet have much philosophy associated with them. Western civilization, which has the greatest influence, includes contributions from the United States. Asiatic peoples including those of Indonesia have some philosophy associated with them. South Asian peoples such as those of India can be somewhat connected. Oriental peoples including those of China have some connection. American Indian peoples including those found in the United States have made minimal contributions to philosphy.

History

Philosophy has roots in prehistory, but these can only be clearly identified in antiquity. It is difficult to trace through the 5th millennium BC, 4th millennum bC, 3rd millennium BC, and 2nd millennium BC. It can be identified from the early 1st millennum BC onwards.

551 - 479 BC Confucius writes and teaches in China. He is considered the original author of the "Analects".
c. 550 BC Lao-tzu writes and teaches in China, establishing Taoism. He is considered the original author of the "Tao Te Ching".

Its origin is associated primarily with classical and medieval history. Developments can be followed through early classical, late classical, early medieval, and late medieval history.

c. 428 - c. 346 BC Plato, Greek philosopher. He is credited with founding a school, the "Academy". "Apologia" and "The Republic" are among his better known works.
384 - 322 BC Aristotle, Greek philosopher and scientist. He is credited with founding a schoo, the "Lyceum". Among his better known works are "Ethics", "Politics", and "Poetics".

c. 386 - 430 CE. Augustine converts to Christianity and writes his "Confessions" and "The City of God".

Philosophy has significant modern development. The 16th century saw a revolution in natural philosophy, which developed into modern science.

1513 Machiavelli publishes "The Prince", an influential work on political philosophy and practice.
1543 Copernicus publishes a heliocentric (sun-centered) theory of astronomy.
c. 1586-c 1637 Galileo makes important discoveries in physics and astronomy.

There were more developments in the 17th century.

c. 1603-c. 1621 Bacon writes and publishes influential work on natural philosophy and scientific method.
1637 - 1649 Descartes publishes works on philosophy and mathematics.
c. 1665-1704 Newton develops and publishes his theories of physics and astronomy, which have a profound influence on philosophy.
c. 1689 Locke publishes his "Essay on Human Understanding", a major influence on science and on political theory.

The 18th century developments in philosophy are sometimes known as the Enlightenment.

1717-1758. Voltaire becomes a noted author and social critic.
1750-1762. Rousseau introduces influential ideas in political philosophy.
1776 Jefferson authors Declaration of Independence.
1776 Adam Smith publishes "Wealth of Nations", an examination of free market-based economics.

Philosophies of the 19th century developed into ideologies and were put into practice.

1848 Marx publishes the Communist Manifesto
1859 Darwin publishes his "Origin of Species"
1867 Marx publishes "Das Kapital"
1871 Darwin publishes his "Descent of Man"
1895 - 1898 Freud publishes work on psychoanalysis and dream interpretation.

In the 20th century, philosophy has become more technical and less accessible to nonspecialists. Details of the early 20th century are not well known. The early mid 20th century, the mid 20th century, the late mid 20th century, and the late 20th century can all be examined.

1905 Einstein publishes four papers in theoretical physics with profound theoretical consequences.
1905 Freud publishes his theories of sexuality and its influence on psychological development.
1913 - 1930 Freud extends his psychoanalytic theories to the study of society.

In the early 21st century including the early 2000s and late 2000s, more details can be examined.

Its future has not yet been examined.