Philosophy


Philosophy is a difficult subject to define and is closely interconnected with several others. The themes discussed here are overlapping. Major divisions include metaphysics, ethics, esthetics, and epistemology.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience Culture Conceptual Culture Philosophical schools and doctrines Special topics Ethics Aesthetics Epistemlogy Metaphysics Logic

Philosophy is a difficult subject to define and is closely interconnected with several others. The themes discussed here are overlapping.

Major divisions include metaphysics, ethics, esthetics, and epistemology.

Philosophical schools and doctrines
Special topics
Ethics
Aesthetics
Epistemlogy
Metaphysics
Logic

Philosophical schools and doctrines

These are in part cultural, as in Chinese, Indian, Islamic, and Western. Western can be approximately divided into periods; classical, medieval, and modern.

Special topics

Cosmology, psychology, anthropology, theology

Ethics

Aesthetics

Metaphysics

Epistemology

Logic


History Philosophy has roots in prehistory including early prehistory. Middle prehistory including the 5th decamillennium BP, 4th decamillennium BP, 3rd decamillennium BP, and 2nd decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory including the early 8th millenium BC, late 8th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, late 7th millennium BC, early 6th millennium BC, and late 6th millennium BC can be connected.
Antiquity The 5th millennium BC includng the early 5th millennium BC, early mid 5th millennium BC, mid 5th millennium BC, late mid 5th millennium BC, and late 5th millennium BC can be connected. The 4th millennum BC including the early 4th millennium BC, early mid 4th millennium BC, mid 4th millennium BC, late mid 4th millennium BC, and late 4th millennium BC can be connected. The 3rd millennium BC including the early 3rd millennium BC, early mid 3rd millennium BC, mid 3rd millennium BC, late mid 3rd millennium BC, and late 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The 2nd millennium BC including the early 2nd millennium BC, early mid 2nd millennium BC, mid 2nd millennium BC, late mid 2nd millennium BC, and late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. It can be identified from The early 1st millennum BC including the 10th century BC, 9th century BC, 8th century BC, 7th century BC, and 6th century BC can be connected. 551 - 479 BC Confucius writes and teaches in China. He is considered the original author of the "Analects". c. 550 BC Lao-tzu writes and teaches in China, establishing Taoism. He is considered the original author of the "Tao Te Ching". Classical and medieval history Modern philosophy largely originated in early classical times. Developments can be followed through the 5th century BC, 4th century BC, 3rd century BC, 2nd century BC, and 1st century BC c. 428 - c. 346 BC Plato, Greek philosopher. He is credited with founding a school, the "Academy". "Apologia" and "The Republic" are among his better known works. 384 - 322 BC Aristotle, Greek philosopher and scientist. He is credited with founding a schoo, the "Lyceum". Among his better known works are "Ethics", "Politics", and "Poetics". Late classical times including the 1st century CE, 2nd century CE, 3rd century CEm 4th century CE, and 4th century CE can be connected. c. 386 - 430 CE. Augustine converts to Christianity and writes his "Confessions" and "The City of God". Early medieval history including the 6th century CE, 7th century CE, 8th century CE, 9th century CE, and 10th century CE can be connected. Late medieval history including the 11th century, 12th century, 13th century, 14th century, and 15th century can be connected. Modern history The 16th century saw a revolution in natural philosophy, which developed into modern science. I do not yet have details of the early 16th century, the early mid 16th century, the mid 16th century, the late mid 16th century, or the late 16th century. 1513 Machiavelli publishes "The Prince", an influential work on political philosophy and practice. 1543 Copernicus publishes a heliocentric (sun-centered) theory of astronomy. c. 1586-c 1637 Galileo makes important discoveries in physics and astronomy. There were more developments in the 17th century. I do not yet have details of the early 17th century, early mid 17th century, mid 17th century, late mid 18th century, or late 17th century. c. 1603-c. 1621 Bacon writes and publishes influential work on natural philosophy and scientific method. 1637 - 1649 Descartes publishes works on philosophy and mathematics. c. 1665-1704 Newton develops and publishes his theories of physics and astronomy, which have a profound influence on philosophy. c. 1689 Locke publishes his "Essay on Human Understanding", a major influence on science and on political theory. The 18th century developments in philosophy are sometimes known as the Enlightenment. I do not yet have details of the early 18th century, early mid 18th century, mid 19th century, late mid 18th century, or late 18th century. 1717-1758. Voltaire becomes a noted author and social critic. 1750-1762. Rousseau introduces influential ideas in political philosophy. 1776 Jefferson authors Declaration of Independence. 1776 Adam Smith publishes "Wealth of Nations", an examination of free market-based economics. Philosophies of the 19th century developed into ideologies and were put into practice. I do not yet have details of the early 19th century. The early mid 19th including the early 1820s, late 1820s, early 1830s, and late 1830s can be connected. The mid 19th century including the early 1840s, late 1840s, early 1850s, and late 1850s can be connected. The late mid 19th century including the early 1860s, late 1860s, early 1870s, and late 1870s can be connected. The late 19th century including the early 1880s, late 1880s, early 1870s, and late 187os can be connected. 1848 Marx publishes the Communist Manifesto 1859 Darwin publishes his "Origin of Species" 1867 Marx publishes "Das Kapital" 1871 Darwin publishes his "Descent of Man" 1895 - 1898 Freud publishes work on psychoanalysis and dream interpretation. 20th century Philosophy has become more technical and less accessible to nonspecialists. Details of the early 20th century including the early 1900s, late 1900s, early 1910s, and late 1910s are not well known. 1905 Einstein publishes four papers in theoretical physics with profound theoretical consequences. 1905 Freud publishes his theories of sexuality and its influence on psychological development. The early mid 20th century including the early 1920s, late 1920s, early 1930s, and late 1930s can be connected. 1913 - 1930 Freud extends his psychoanalytic theories to the study of society. The mid 20th century including the early 1940s, late 1940s, early 1950s, late 1950s, and early 1960s can be connected. The late mid 20th century including the early 1960s, late 1960s, early 1970s, and late 1970s can be connected. The late 20th century including the early 1980s, late 1980s, early 1990s, and late 1990s can be examined. Early 21st century The early 2000s including 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 can be considered. The late 2000s including 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2010 can be connected. In the early 2010s more details can be examined. 2011 can be connected. The first quarter 2011 including January 2011, February 2011, and March 2011 can be connected. The second quarter 2011 can be connected. Its future has not yet been examined. Sociology Variants among the different peoples of the world include African peoples. Specific nations such as Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, Philippines Vietnam, Germany, Egypt, Ethiopia do not yet have much philosophy associated with them. Western civilization, which has the greatest influence, includes contributions from Russia. Anglic peooples including those of the United States have made significant contributions. Latin peoples including those of Brazil have some contributions. Asiatic peoples including those of Bangladesh have some philosophy associated with them. South Asian peoples such as those of Pakistan can be somewhat connected. India can be connected. Oriental peoples including those of China have some connection. Southeast Asian peoples such as those of Indonesia can be connected. American Indian peoples including those found in Brazil have made minimal contributions to philosphy. Middle American Indian peoples such as those of the southwestern United States can be connected. North American Indian peoples such as those of the United States can be connected. Communities Particlar communities such as Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City can be considered. Social structure and change Social change including factors and processes can be connected. Particular changes and movements including the agricultural revolution, agrarian revolution, and industrial revolution can be connected. Social types including hunting and gathering societies, horticultural societies, agrarian societies, and industrial societies can be connected. Social structure including community and regional structure, class structure, institutional structure, cultural structure, and anthropological structure can be connected. Institutions Religion including religious belief and practice is fairly closely connected to philosophy. Particular religions including Abrahamic religion, Asiatic religion, pagan religion, and secularism can be connected. Religious organization can be connected. Government including law, government structure, government activity, and particular governments has connections to philosophy. Economics including economic activities, industries, and economic systems has connections to philosophy. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and particular schools can be connected. Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families can be connected to philosophy. Other Culture Philosophy may be connected to behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events. Other Conceptual Culture Applied science including applied social science, accounting, information science, medical science, navigation, engineering, and measurement can be connected. Mathematics including statistics, geometry, analysis, algebra, arithmetic, and mathematical foundations can be connected. Literature including particular works, literary types and genres, literary forms, and oral tradition can be connected. Grahic arts including such areas as animation, photography, printmaking, painting, and drawing seems to be minimally connected. It depends heavily on studies of language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world. It is only weakly connected to material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation technology, communication technology, and miscellaneous artifacts. Anthropology Particular groups may be connected to philosophy. Human geography including European geography, Asian geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography can be connected. Human ecology including the effects of people on the environment, relations with other life, and effects of the environment on people can be connected. Physical anthropology including human dispersion, racial variation, and human origins can be connected. Demography including population change, population size and structure, deaths, migration, and births may be connected. Social foundations including social group behavior, social group types, social control, social interaction, and social presentation can be connected. Personal studies Biography of particular philosophers is useful. Psychology including social psychology, personality, mental disorders, developmental psychology, behavior patterns, mind, and behavioral elements can be connected. Studies of the human body including form and appearance, disease, life cycle, body functions, and body systems may also be useful. Philosophy has been strongly affected by science. A number of questions once asked by philosophy have been resolved or at least illuminated by scientific discoveries, while others have been raised. Connections to physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth science, and biology have been useful.

History

Philosophy has roots in prehistory including early prehistory. Middle prehistory including the 5th decamillennium BP, 4th decamillennium BP, 3rd decamillennium BP, and 2nd decamillennium BP can be connected. Late prehistory including the early 8th millenium BC, late 8th millennium BC, early 7th millennium BC, late 7th millennium BC, early 6th millennium BC, and late 6th millennium BC can be connected.

Antiquity

The 5th millennium BC includng the early 5th millennium BC, early mid 5th millennium BC, mid 5th millennium BC, late mid 5th millennium BC, and late 5th millennium BC can be connected. The 4th millennum BC including the early 4th millennium BC, early mid 4th millennium BC, mid 4th millennium BC, late mid 4th millennium BC, and late 4th millennium BC can be connected. The 3rd millennium BC including the early 3rd millennium BC, early mid 3rd millennium BC, mid 3rd millennium BC, late mid 3rd millennium BC, and late 3rd millennium BC can be connected. The 2nd millennium BC including the early 2nd millennium BC, early mid 2nd millennium BC, mid 2nd millennium BC, late mid 2nd millennium BC, and late 2nd millennium BC can be connected. It can be identified from The early 1st millennum BC including the 10th century BC, 9th century BC, 8th century BC, 7th century BC, and 6th century BC can be connected.

551 - 479 BC Confucius writes and teaches in China. He is considered the original author of the "Analects".
c. 550 BC Lao-tzu writes and teaches in China, establishing Taoism. He is considered the original author of the "Tao Te Ching".

Classical and medieval history

Modern philosophy largely originated in early classical times. Developments can be followed through the 5th century BC, 4th century BC, 3rd century BC, 2nd century BC, and 1st century BC

c. 428 - c. 346 BC Plato, Greek philosopher. He is credited with founding a school, the "Academy". "Apologia" and "The Republic" are among his better known works.
384 - 322 BC Aristotle, Greek philosopher and scientist. He is credited with founding a schoo, the "Lyceum". Among his better known works are "Ethics", "Politics", and "Poetics".

Late classical times including the 1st century CE, 2nd century CE, 3rd century CEm 4th century CE, and 4th century CE can be connected.

c. 386 - 430 CE. Augustine converts to Christianity and writes his "Confessions" and "The City of God".

Early medieval history including the 6th century CE, 7th century CE, 8th century CE, 9th century CE, and 10th century CE can be connected. Late medieval history including the 11th century, 12th century, 13th century, 14th century, and 15th century can be connected.

Modern history

The 16th century saw a revolution in natural philosophy, which developed into modern science. I do not yet have details of the early 16th century, the early mid 16th century, the mid 16th century, the late mid 16th century, or the late 16th century.

1513 Machiavelli publishes "The Prince", an influential work on political philosophy and practice.
1543 Copernicus publishes a heliocentric (sun-centered) theory of astronomy.
c. 1586-c 1637 Galileo makes important discoveries in physics and astronomy.

There were more developments in the 17th century. I do not yet have details of the early 17th century, early mid 17th century, mid 17th century, late mid 18th century, or late 17th century.

c. 1603-c. 1621 Bacon writes and publishes influential work on natural philosophy and scientific method.
1637 - 1649 Descartes publishes works on philosophy and mathematics.
c. 1665-1704 Newton develops and publishes his theories of physics and astronomy, which have a profound influence on philosophy.
c. 1689 Locke publishes his "Essay on Human Understanding", a major influence on science and on political theory.

The 18th century developments in philosophy are sometimes known as the Enlightenment. I do not yet have details of the early 18th century, early mid 18th century, mid 19th century, late mid 18th century, or late 18th century.

1717-1758. Voltaire becomes a noted author and social critic.
1750-1762. Rousseau introduces influential ideas in political philosophy.
1776 Jefferson authors Declaration of Independence.
1776 Adam Smith publishes "Wealth of Nations", an examination of free market-based economics.

Philosophies of the 19th century developed into ideologies and were put into practice. I do not yet have details of the early 19th century. The early mid 19th including the early 1820s, late 1820s, early 1830s, and late 1830s can be connected. The mid 19th century including the early 1840s, late 1840s, early 1850s, and late 1850s can be connected. The late mid 19th century including the early 1860s, late 1860s, early 1870s, and late 1870s can be connected. The late 19th century including the early 1880s, late 1880s, early 1870s, and late 187os can be connected.

1848 Marx publishes the Communist Manifesto
1859 Darwin publishes his "Origin of Species"
1867 Marx publishes "Das Kapital"
1871 Darwin publishes his "Descent of Man"
1895 - 1898 Freud publishes work on psychoanalysis and dream interpretation.

20th century

Philosophy has become more technical and less accessible to nonspecialists.

Details of the early 20th century including the early 1900s, late 1900s, early 1910s, and late 1910s are not well known.

1905 Einstein publishes four papers in theoretical physics with profound theoretical consequences.
1905 Freud publishes his theories of sexuality and its influence on psychological development.

The early mid 20th century including the early 1920s, late 1920s, early 1930s, and late 1930s can be connected.

1913 - 1930 Freud extends his psychoanalytic theories to the study of society.

The mid 20th century including the early 1940s, late 1940s, early 1950s, late 1950s, and early 1960s can be connected. The late mid 20th century including the early 1960s, late 1960s, early 1970s, and late 1970s can be connected. The late 20th century including the early 1980s, late 1980s, early 1990s, and late 1990s can be examined.

Early 21st century

The early 2000s including 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 can be considered. The late 2000s including 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2010 can be connected. In the early 2010s more details can be examined. 2011 can be connected. The first quarter 2011 including January 2011, February 2011, and March 2011 can be connected. The second quarter 2011 can be connected.

Its future has not yet been examined.

Sociology

Variants among the different peoples of the world include African peoples.

Specific nations such as Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, Philippines Vietnam, Germany, Egypt, Ethiopia do not yet have much philosophy associated with them.

Western civilization, which has the greatest influence, includes contributions from Russia. Anglic peooples including those of the United States have made significant contributions. Latin peoples including those of Brazil have some contributions.

Asiatic peoples including those of Bangladesh have some philosophy associated with them. South Asian peoples such as those of Pakistan can be somewhat connected. India can be connected. Oriental peoples including those of China have some connection. Southeast Asian peoples such as those of Indonesia can be connected.

American Indian peoples including those found in Brazil have made minimal contributions to philosphy. Middle American Indian peoples such as those of the southwestern United States can be connected. North American Indian peoples such as those of the United States can be connected.

Communities

Particlar communities such as Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City can be considered.

Social structure and change

Social change including factors and processes can be connected. Particular changes and movements including the agricultural revolution, agrarian revolution, and industrial revolution can be connected. Social types including hunting and gathering societies, horticultural societies, agrarian societies, and industrial societies can be connected. Social structure including community and regional structure, class structure, institutional structure, cultural structure, and anthropological structure can be connected.

Institutions

Religion including religious belief and practice is fairly closely connected to philosophy. Particular religions including Abrahamic religion, Asiatic religion, pagan religion, and secularism can be connected. Religious organization can be connected.

Government including law, government structure, government activity, and particular governments has connections to philosophy. Economics including economic activities, industries, and economic systems has connections to philosophy. Education including research, teaching, cultural institutions, educational organization, and particular schools can be connected. Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families can be connected to philosophy.

Other Culture

Philosophy may be connected to behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events.

Other Conceptual Culture

Applied science including applied social science, accounting, information science, medical science, navigation, engineering, and measurement can be connected. Mathematics including statistics, geometry, analysis, algebra, arithmetic, and mathematical foundations can be connected. Literature including particular works, literary types and genres, literary forms, and oral tradition can be connected. Grahic arts including such areas as animation, photography, printmaking, painting, and drawing seems to be minimally connected. It depends heavily on studies of language including linguistics, writing, and languages of the world.

It is only weakly connected to material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation technology, communication technology, and miscellaneous artifacts.

Anthropology

Particular groups may be connected to philosophy. Human geography including European geography, Asian geography, African geography, North American geography, South American geography, and Oceanic geography can be connected. Human ecology including the effects of people on the environment, relations with other life, and effects of the environment on people can be connected. Physical anthropology including human dispersion, racial variation, and human origins can be connected. Demography including population change, population size and structure, deaths, migration, and births may be connected. Social foundations including social group behavior, social group types, social control, social interaction, and social presentation can be connected.

Personal studies

Biography of particular philosophers is useful. Psychology including social psychology, personality, mental disorders, developmental psychology, behavior patterns, mind, and behavioral elements can be connected. Studies of the human body including form and appearance, disease, life cycle, body functions, and body systems may also be useful.

Philosophy has been strongly affected by science. A number of questions once asked by philosophy have been resolved or at least illuminated by scientific discoveries, while others have been raised. Connections to physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth science, and biology have been useful.